Silent versus reading out loud modes: An eye-tracking study

The main purpose of this study is to compare the silent and loud reading ability of typical and dyslexic readers, using eye-tracking technology to monitor the reading process. The participants (156 students of normal intelligence) were first divided into three groups based on their school grade, and each subgroup was then further separated into typical readers and students diagnosed with dyslexia. The students read the same text twice, one time silently and one time out loud. Various eye-tracking parameters were calculated for both types of reading. In general, the performance of the typical students was better for both modes of reading - regardless of age. In the older age groups, typical readers performed better at silent reading. The dyslexic readers in all age groups performed better at reading out loud. However, this was less prominent in secondary and upper secondary dyslexics, reflecting a slow shift towards silent reading mode as they age. Our results confirm that the eye-tracking parameters of dyslexics improve with age in both silent and loud reading, and their reading preference shifts slowly towards silent reading. Typical readers, before 4th grade do not show a clear reading mode preference, however, after that age they develop a clear preference for silent reading

RADAR: A novel fast-screening method for reading difficulties with special focus on dyslexia

Dyslexia is a developmental learning disorder of single word reading accuracy and/or fluency, with compelling research directed towards understanding the contributions of the visual system. While dyslexia is not an oculomotor disease, readers with dyslexia have shown different eye movements than typically developing students during text reading. Readers with dyslexia exhibit longer and more frequent fixations, shorter saccade lengths, more backward refixations than typical readers. Furthermore, readers with dyslexia are known to have difficulty in reading long words, lower skipping rate of short words, and high gaze duration on many words. It is an open question whether it is possible to harness these distinctive oculomotor scanning patterns observed during reading in order to develop a screening tool that can reliably identify struggling readers, who may be candidates for dyslexia. Here, we introduce a novel, fast, objective, non-invasive method, named Rapid Assessment of Difficulties and Abnormalities in Reading (RADAR) that screens for features associated with the aberrant visual scanning of reading text seen in dyslexia. Eye tracking parameter measurements that are stable under retest and have high discriminative power, as indicated by their ROC (receiver operating characteristic) curves, were obtained during silent text reading. These parameters were combined to derive a total reading score (TRS) that can reliably separate readers with dyslexia from typical readers. We tested TRS in a group of school-age children ranging from 8.5 to 12.5 years of age. TRS achieved 94.2% correct classification of children tested. Specifically, 35 out of 37 control (specificity 94.6%) and 30 out of 32 readers with dyslexia (sensitivity 93.8%) were classified correctly using RADAR, under a circular validation condition (see section Results:/Total Reading Score) where the individual evaluated was not included in the test construction group. In conclusion, RADAR is a novel, automated, fast and reliable way to identify children at high risk of dyslexia that is amenable to large-scale screening. Moreover, analysis of eye movement parameters obtained with RADAR during reading will likely be useful for implementing individualized treatment strategies and for monitoring objectively the success of chosen interventions. We envision that it will be possible to use RADAR as a sensitive, objective, and quantitative first pass screen to identify individuals with reading disorders that manifest with abnormal oculomotor reading strategies, like dyslexia

Parameter τ for the easy text.

<p>Parameter τ for the easy text.</p

Saccade length for the basic text.

<p>Saccade length for the basic text.</p

Reading paths.

<p>A reading path from a typical (normal) reader (<i>left</i>) and from a reader with dyslexia (<i>right</i>). The blue circles are the fixations and the orange lines are the saccadic movements. The bigger the circle, the longer the fixation. Clearly the reader with dyslexia exhibits longer fixation duration, shorter saccadic movements, regressive movements and longer reading time than the typical reader.</p

Circular validation and PCA.

<p><i>Left</i>: Circular validation based on the TRS of the participants. A score above 0.5 (dash line) classifies the participant as typical reader, while a score below 0.5 classifies the participant as potentially dyslexic. <i>Right</i>: Principal component analysis is carried out on the normalized ((P-μ)/σ) vector of all 12 useful parameters of RADAR. The first principal component (maximum variance) vector projection is plotted against the last principal component (minimum variance) vector projection. The separability of readers with dyslexia from typical readers is clear.</p

Refixations for the basic text.

<p>Refixations for the basic text.</p

Text statistics for the basic text.

<p>Text statistics for the basic text.</p