Water-exchange MRI detects subtle blood-brain barrier breakdown in Alzheimer's disease rats

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown has been hypothesized to play a key role in the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the question of whether AD itself contributes to loss of BBB integrity is still uncertain, as many in-vivo studies have failed to detect signs of AD-related BBB breakdown. We hypothesize AD-related BBB damage is subtle, and that these negative results arise from a lack of measurement sensitivity. With the aim of developing a more sensitive measure of BBB breakdown, we have designed a novel MRI scanning protocol to quantify the trans-BBB exchange of endogenous water. Using this method, we detect increased BBB water permeability in a rat model of AD that is associated with reduced expression of the tight junction protein occludin. BBB permeability to MRI contrast agent, assessed using dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI, did not differ between transgenic and wild-type animals and was uncorrelated with occludin expression. Our data supports the occurrence of AD-related BBB breakdown, and indicates that such BBB pathology is subtle and may be undetectable using existing ‘tracer leakage’ methods. Our validated water-exchange MRI method provides a new powerful tool with which to study BBB damage in-vivo

Evaluation of \u3csup\u3e18\u3c/sup\u3eF-IAM6067 as a sigma-1 receptor PET tracer for neurodegeneration in vivo in rodents and in human tissue

© The author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). See http://ivyspring.com/terms for full terms and conditions. The sigma 1 receptor (S1R) is widely expressed in the CNS and is mainly located on the endoplasmic reticulum. The S1R is involved in the regulation of many neurotransmission systems and, indirectly, in neurodegenerative diseases. The S1R may therefore represent an interesting neuronal biomarker in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson\u27s (PD) or Alzheimer\u27s diseases (AD). Here we present the characterisation of the S1R-specific 18F-labelled tracer 18F-IAM6067 in two animal models and in human brain tissue. Methods: Wistar rats were used for PET-CT imaging (60 min dynamic acquisition) and metabolite analysis (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 60 min post-injection). To verify in vivo selectivity, haloperidol, BD1047 (S1R ligand), CM398 (S2R ligand) and SB206553 (5HT2B/C antagonist) were administrated for pre-saturation studies. Excitotoxic lesions induced by intra-striatal injection of AMPA were also imaged by 18F-IAM6067 PET-CT to test the sensitivity of the methods in a well-established model of neuronal loss. Tracer brain uptake was also verified by autoradiography in rats and in a mouse model of PD (intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) unilateral lesion). Finally, human cortical binding was investigated by autoradiography in three groups of subjects (control subjects with Braak ≤2, and AD patients, Braak \u3e2 & ≤4 and Braak \u3e4 stages). Results: We demonstrate that despite rapid peripheral metabolism of 18F-IAM6067, radiolabelled metabolites were hardly detected in brain samples. Brain uptake of 18F-IAM6067 showed differences in S1R anatomical distribution, namely from high to low uptake: pons-raphe, thalamus medio-dorsal, substantia nigra, hypothalamus, cerebellum, cortical areas and striatum. Pre-saturation studies showed 79-90% blockade of the binding in all areas of the brain indicated above except with the 5HT2B/C antagonist SB206553 and S2R ligand CM398 which induced no significant blockade, indicating good specificity of 18F-IAM6067 for S1Rs. No difference between ipsi- and contralateral sides of the brain in the mouse model of PD was detected. AMPA lesion induced a significant 69% decrease in 18F-IAM6067 uptake in the globus pallidus matching the neuronal loss as measured by NeuN, but only a trend to decrease (-16%) in the caudate putamen despite a significant 91% decrease in neuronal count. Moreover, no difference in the human cortical binding was shown between AD groups and controls. Conclusion: This work shows that 18F-IAM6067 is a specific and selective S1R radiotracer. The absence or small changes in S1R detected here in animal models and human tissue warrants further investigations and suggests that S1R might not be the anticipated ideal biomarker for neuronal loss in neurodegenerative diseases such as AD and PD

Prodromal neuroinflammatory, cholinergic and metabolite dysfunction detected by PET and MRS in the TgF344-AD transgenic rat model of AD: a collaborative multi-modal study

Mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are valuable but do not fully recapitulate human AD pathology, such as spontaneous Tau fibril accumulation and neuronal loss, necessitating the development of new AD models. The transgenic (TG) TgF344-AD rat has been reported to develop age-dependent AD features including neuronal loss and neurofibrillary tangles, despite only expressing APP and PSEN1 mutations, suggesting an improved modelling of AD hallmarks. Alterations in neuronal networks as well as learning performance and cognition tasks have been reported in this model, but none have combined a longitudinal, multimodal approach across multiple centres, which mimics the approaches commonly taken in clinical studies. We therefore aimed to further characterise the progression of AD-like pathology and cognition in the TgF344-AD rat from young-adults (6 months (m)) to mid- (12 m) and advanced-stage (18 m, 25 m) of the disease.Methods: TgF344-AD rats and wild-type (WT) littermates were imaged at 6 m, 12 m and 18 m with [18F]DPA-714 (TSPO, neuroinflammation), [18F]Florbetaben (A beta) and [18F]ASEM (α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor) and with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and with (S)-[18F]THK5117 (Tau) at 15 and 25 m. Behaviour tests were also performed at 6 m, 12 m and 18 m. Immunohistochemistry (CD11b, GFAP, Aβ, NeuN, NeuroChrom) and Tau (S)-[18F]THK5117 autoradiography, immunohistochemistry and Western blot were also performed.Results: [18F]DPA-714 positron emission tomography (PET) showed an increase in neuroinflammation in TG vs wildtype animals from 12 m in the hippocampus (+11%), and at the advanced-stage AD in the hippocampus (+12%), the thalamus (+11%) and frontal cortex (+14%). This finding coincided with strong increases in brain microgliosis (CD11b) and astrogliosis (GFAP) at these time-points as assessed by immunohistochemistry. In vivo [18F]ASEM PET revealed an age-dependent increase uptake in the striatum and pallidum/nucleus basalis of Meynert in WT only, similar to that observed with this tracer in humans, resulting in TG being significantly lower than WT by 18 m. In vivo [18F]Florbetaben PET scanning detected Aβ accumulation at 18 m, and (S)-[18F]THK5117 PET revealed subsequent Tau accumulation at 25m in hippocampal and cortical regions. Aβ plaques were low but detectable by immunohistochemistry from 6 m, increasing further at 12 and 18 m with Tau-positive neurons adjacent to Aβ plaques at 18 m. NeuroChrom (a pan neuronal marker) immunohistochemistry revealed a loss of neuronal staining at the Aβ plaques locations, while NeuN labelling revealed an age-dependent decrease in hippocampal neuron number in both genotypes. Behavioural assessment using the novel object recognition task revealed that both WT & TgF344-AD animals discriminated the novel from familiar object at 3 m and 6 m of age. However, low levels of exploration observed in both genotypes at later time-points resulted in neither genotype successfully completing the task. Deficits in social interaction were only observed at 3 m in the TgF344-AD animals. By in vivo MRS, we showed a decrease in neuronal marker N-acetyl-aspartate in the hippocampus at 18 m (-18% vs age-matched WT, and -31% vs 6 m TG) and increased Taurine in the cortex of TG (+35% vs age-matched WT, and +55% vs 6 m TG).Conclusions: This multi-centre multi-modal study demonstrates, for the first time, alterations in brain metabolites, cholinergic receptors and neuroinflammation in vivo in this model, validated by robust ex vivo approaches. Our data confirm that, unlike mouse models, the TgF344-AD express Tau pathology that can be detected via PET, albeit later than by ex vivo techniques, and is a useful model to assess and longitudinally monitor early neurotransmission dysfunction and neuroinflammation in AD.</p

Prodromal neuroinflammatory, cholinergic and metabolite dysfunction detected by PET and MRS in the TgF344-AD transgenic rat model of AD: a collaborative multi-modal study

Mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are valuable but do not fully recapitulate human AD pathology, such as spontaneous Tau fibril accumulation and neuronal loss, necessitating the development of new AD models. The transgenic (TG) TgF344-AD rat has been reported to develop age-dependent AD features including neuronal loss and neurofibrillary tangles, despite only expressing APP and PSEN1 mutations, suggesting an improved modelling of AD hallmarks. Alterations in neuronal networks as well as learning performance and cognition tasks have been reported in this model, but none have combined a longitudinal, multimodal approach across multiple centres, which mimics the approaches commonly taken in clinical studies. We therefore aimed to further characterise the progression of AD-like pathology and cognition in the TgF344-AD rat from young-adults (6 months (m)) to mid- (12 m) and advanced-stage (18 m, 25 m) of the disease. Methods: TgF344-AD rats and wild-type (WT) littermates were imaged at 6 m, 12 m and 18 m with [18F]DPA-714 (TSPO, neuroinflammation), [18F]Florbetaben (Aβ) and [18F]ASEM (α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor) and with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and with (S)-[18F]THK5117 (Tau) at 15 and 25 m. Behaviour tests were also performed at 6 m, 12 m and 18 m. Immunohistochemistry (CD11b, GFAP, Aβ, NeuN, NeuroChrom) and Tau (S)-[18F]THK5117 autoradiography, immunohistochemistry and Western blot were also performed. Results: [18F]DPA-714 positron emission tomography (PET) showed an increase in neuroinflammation in TG vs wildtype animals from 12 m in the hippocampus (+11%), and at the advanced-stage AD in the hippocampus (+12%), the thalamus (+11%) and frontal cortex (+14%). This finding coincided with strong increases in brain microgliosis (CD11b) and astrogliosis (GFAP) at these time-points as assessed by immunohistochemistry. In vivo [18F]ASEM PET revealed an age-dependent increase uptake in the striatum and pallidum/nucleus basalis of Meynert in WT only, similar to that observed with this tracer in humans, resulting in TG being significantly lower than WT by 18 m. In vivo [18F]Florbetaben PET scanning detected Aβ accumulation at 18 m, and (S)-[18F]THK5117 PET revealed subsequent Tau accumulation at 25m in hippocampal and cortical regions. Aβ plaques were low but detectable by immunohistochemistry from 6 m, increasing further at 12 and 18 m with Tau-positive neurons adjacent to Aβ plaques at 18 m. NeuroChrom (a pan neuronal marker) immunohistochemistry revealed a loss of neuronal staining at the Aβ plaques locations, while NeuN labelling revealed an age-dependent decrease in hippocampal neuron number in both genotypes. Behavioural assessment using the novel object recognition task revealed that both WT & TgF344-AD animals discriminated the novel from familiar object at 3 m and 6 m of age. However, low levels of exploration observed in both genotypes at later time-points resulted in neither genotype successfully completing the task. Deficits in social interaction were only observed at 3 m in the TgF344-AD animals. By in vivo MRS, we showed a decrease in neuronal marker N-acetyl-aspartate in the hippocampus at 18 m (-18% vs age-matched WT, and -31% vs 6 m TG) and increased Taurine in the cortex of TG (+35% vs age-matched WT, and +55% vs 6 m TG). Conclusions: This multi-centre multi-modal study demonstrates, for the first time, alterations in brain metabolites, cholinergic receptors and neuroinflammation in vivo in this model, validated by robust ex vivo approaches. Our data confirm that, unlike mouse models, the TgF344-AD express Tau pathology that can be detected via PET, albeit later than by ex vivo techniques, and is a useful model to assess and longitudinally monitor early neurotransmission dysfunction and neuroinflammation in AD

Implication du système cholinergique dans l'altération de la mémoire de travail au cours du vieillissement chez la souris : approche comportementale, pharmacologique et neurofonctionnelle

Nos travaux visaient à réaliser un « modèle rongeur » (souris C57Bl/6) de l’altération de la mémoire de travail (MDT) lors du vieillissement, et comparer le potentiel promnésiant de divers composés pharmacologiques. Nous montrons que des souris âgées (18-19 mois) présentent une sensibilité accrue aux interférences proactives délai-dépendantes dans une épreuve d’alternance spontanée par rapport à des souris jeunes (4-5 mois). Une étude immunohistochimique centrée sur l’activité CREB révèle que les souris âgées présentent une suractivation du cortex préfrontal (CPF) inversement corrélée aux performances. La relation entre le déficit cognitif et la suractivation du CPF est confortée par la restauration des performances suite à l’injection dans le CPF d’un inhibiteur de la kinase activatrice de CREB.L’administration de composés cholinergiques permet de restaurer les capacités mnésiques des souris âgées par des mécanismes bien dissociés. Le donepezil, inhibiteur de l’acétylcholinestérase, augmente l’activation de l’hippocampe, alors que le S 38232, un agoniste des récepteurs nicotiniques α4β2, agit en supprimant la suractivation préfrontale. Finalement, l’utilisation de souris invalidées génétiquement pour la sous-unité β2 révèle des mécanismes de régulation complexes au sein du système cholinergique.Nos travaux démontrent la validité de notre modèle pour l’étude des troubles de la MDT induits par le vieillissement. De plus, ils confortent des études récentes chez l’Homme indiquant un lien important entre la suractivation du CPF et le déclin cognitif lié à l’âge. Au regard de l’effet du S 38232 qui, en diminuant la suractivation préfrontale, permet de restaurer les performances de MDT, le récepteur nicotinique α4β2 apparaît comme une cible potentielle pour le développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques.The aim of this study was to realise a “rodent model” (C57Bl/6 mice) of age-related working memory (WM) impairments, and to evaluate the procognitive impact of several pharmacological compounds. We show that compared to young adult mice (4-5 months), aged mice (18-19 months) exhibit an exaggerated vulnerability to delay-dependant interference in a sequential spontaneous alternation task. CREB activity assessed by immunohistochemistry demonstrates that aged mice show an over-activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) negatively correlated with behavioural performance. Infusion of an inhibitor of CREB activation into the PFC restores WM performance in aged mice. Both results highlight the link between the PFC over-activation and the age-related cognitive deficit.Pharmacological study reveals that cholinergic compounds restore cognitive performance of aged mice and act differently on brain structures sustaining WM. On one hand, donepezil – an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase – increases CREB activation of the hippocampus. On the other hand, S 38232 – an agonist of α4β2 nicotinic receptors – decreases the CREB age-induced over-activation of the PFC. Finally, using β2 knock-out mice, we show that the regulation of the cholinergic system is submitted to complex mechanisms.Overall, our experimental set up demonstrates that spontaneous alternation is a valuable model for studying age-related WM impairments. In accordance with human’s findings, our results highlight the link between prefrontal over-activation and the cognitive decline occurring during ageing. Considering that S 38232, by decreasing the CPF over-activation, alleviates the WM deficit observed in aged mice, the α4β2 nicotinic receptor appears to be an efficient target for new therapeutic strategies

Implication du système cholinergique dans l'altération de la mémoire de travail au cours du vieillissement chez la souris : approche comportementale, pharmacologique et neurofonctionnelle

Nos travaux visaient à réaliser un « modèle rongeur » (souris C57Bl/6) de l’altération de la mémoire de travail (MDT) lors du vieillissement, et comparer le potentiel promnésiant de divers composés pharmacologiques. Nous montrons que des souris âgées (18-19 mois) présentent une sensibilité accrue aux interférences proactives délai-dépendantes dans une épreuve d’alternance spontanée par rapport à des souris jeunes (4-5 mois). Une étude immunohistochimique centrée sur l’activité CREB révèle que les souris âgées présentent une suractivation du cortex préfrontal (CPF) inversement corrélée aux performances. La relation entre le déficit cognitif et la suractivation du CPF est confortée par la restauration des performances suite à l’injection dans le CPF d’un inhibiteur de la kinase activatrice de CREB.L’administration de composés cholinergiques permet de restaurer les capacités mnésiques des souris âgées par des mécanismes bien dissociés. Le donepezil, inhibiteur de l’acétylcholinestérase, augmente l’activation de l’hippocampe, alors que le S 38232, un agoniste des récepteurs nicotiniques α4β2, agit en supprimant la suractivation préfrontale. Finalement, l’utilisation de souris invalidées génétiquement pour la sous-unité β2 révèle des mécanismes de régulation complexes au sein du système cholinergique.Nos travaux démontrent la validité de notre modèle pour l’étude des troubles de la MDT induits par le vieillissement. De plus, ils confortent des études récentes chez l’Homme indiquant un lien important entre la suractivation du CPF et le déclin cognitif lié à l’âge. Au regard de l’effet du S 38232 qui, en diminuant la suractivation préfrontale, permet de restaurer les performances de MDT, le récepteur nicotinique α4β2 apparaît comme une cible potentielle pour le développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques.The aim of this study was to realise a “rodent model” (C57Bl/6 mice) of age-related working memory (WM) impairments, and to evaluate the procognitive impact of several pharmacological compounds. We show that compared to young adult mice (4-5 months), aged mice (18-19 months) exhibit an exaggerated vulnerability to delay-dependant interference in a sequential spontaneous alternation task. CREB activity assessed by immunohistochemistry demonstrates that aged mice show an over-activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) negatively correlated with behavioural performance. Infusion of an inhibitor of CREB activation into the PFC restores WM performance in aged mice. Both results highlight the link between the PFC over-activation and the age-related cognitive deficit.Pharmacological study reveals that cholinergic compounds restore cognitive performance of aged mice and act differently on brain structures sustaining WM. On one hand, donepezil – an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase – increases CREB activation of the hippocampus. On the other hand, S 38232 – an agonist of α4β2 nicotinic receptors – decreases the CREB age-induced over-activation of the PFC. Finally, using β2 knock-out mice, we show that the regulation of the cholinergic system is submitted to complex mechanisms.Overall, our experimental set up demonstrates that spontaneous alternation is a valuable model for studying age-related WM impairments. In accordance with human’s findings, our results highlight the link between prefrontal over-activation and the cognitive decline occurring during ageing. Considering that S 38232, by decreasing the CPF over-activation, alleviates the WM deficit observed in aged mice, the α4β2 nicotinic receptor appears to be an efficient target for new therapeutic strategies

Implication du système cholinergique dans l'altération de la mémoire de travail au cours du vieillissement chez la souris (approche comportementale, pharmacologique et neurofonctionnelle)

Nos travaux visaient à réaliser un modèle rongeur (souris C57Bl/6) de l altération de la mémoire de travail (MDT) lors du vieillissement, et comparer le potentiel promnésiant de divers composés pharmacologiques. Nous montrons que des souris âgées (18-19 mois) présentent une sensibilité accrue aux interférences proactives délai-dépendantes dans une épreuve d alternance spontanée par rapport à des souris jeunes (4-5 mois). Une étude immunohistochimique centrée sur l activité CREB révèle que les souris âgées présentent une suractivation du cortex préfrontal (CPF) inversement corrélée aux performances. La relation entre le déficit cognitif et la suractivation du CPF est confortée par la restauration des performances suite à l injection dans le CPF d un inhibiteur de la kinase activatrice de CREB.L administration de composés cholinergiques permet de restaurer les capacités mnésiques des souris âgées par des mécanismes bien dissociés. Le donepezil, inhibiteur de l acétylcholinestérase, augmente l activation de l hippocampe, alors que le S 38232, un agoniste des récepteurs nicotiniques a4b2, agit en supprimant la suractivation préfrontale. Finalement, l utilisation de souris invalidées génétiquement pour la sous-unité b2 révèle des mécanismes de régulation complexes au sein du système cholinergique.Nos travaux démontrent la validité de notre modèle pour l étude des troubles de la MDT induits par le vieillissement. De plus, ils confortent des études récentes chez l Homme indiquant un lien important entre la suractivation du CPF et le déclin cognitif lié à l âge. Au regard de l effet du S 38232 qui, en diminuant la suractivation préfrontale, permet de restaurer les performances de MDT, le récepteur nicotinique a4b2 apparaît comme une cible potentielle pour le développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques.The aim of this study was to realise a rodent model (C57Bl/6 mice) of age-related working memory (WM) impairments, and to evaluate the procognitive impact of several pharmacological compounds. We show that compared to young adult mice (4-5 months), aged mice (18-19 months) exhibit an exaggerated vulnerability to delay-dependant interference in a sequential spontaneous alternation task. CREB activity assessed by immunohistochemistry demonstrates that aged mice show an over-activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) negatively correlated with behavioural performance. Infusion of an inhibitor of CREB activation into the PFC restores WM performance in aged mice. Both results highlight the link between the PFC over-activation and the age-related cognitive deficit.Pharmacological study reveals that cholinergic compounds restore cognitive performance of aged mice and act differently on brain structures sustaining WM. On one hand, donepezil an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase increases CREB activation of the hippocampus. On the other hand, S 38232 an agonist of a4b2 nicotinic receptors decreases the CREB age-induced over-activation of the PFC. Finally, using b2 knock-out mice, we show that the regulation of the cholinergic system is submitted to complex mechanisms.Overall, our experimental set up demonstrates that spontaneous alternation is a valuable model for studying age-related WM impairments. In accordance with human s findings, our results highlight the link between prefrontal over-activation and the cognitive decline occurring during ageing. Considering that S 38232, by decreasing the CPF over-activation, alleviates the WM deficit observed in aged mice, the a4b2 nicotinic receptor appears to be an efficient target for new therapeutic strategies.BORDEAUX1-Bib.electronique (335229901) / SudocSudocFranceF

Selection of similar single domain antibodies from two immune VHH libraries obtained from two alpacas by using different selection methods.

International audienceThe two most used methods to select camelid single-domain antibody-fragments (VHHs) are: displaying their repertoires on the surface of filamentous bacteriophages (phage display) or linking them to ribosomes (ribosome display). In this study, we compared specific VHHs isolated from two different immune libraries coming from two different alpacas by using these two selection methods. Three anti-GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) VHHs were derived from an immune library obtained by ribosome display after immunization of one alpaca with purified GFAP, a protein expressed by astroglial cells. In parallel, three other anti-GFAP VHHs were derived from an immune library by phage display after immunization of another alpaca with a human brain tissue extract containing GFAP. All the VHHs were closely related and one VHH was found to be strictly identical in both studies. This highlights the selection pressure exerted by the camelid immune system to shape the paratope of an antibody against a defined antigen

Contrast-enhanced MR microscopy of amyloid plaques in five mouse models of amyloidosis and in human Alzheimer’s disease brains

International audienceGadolinium (Gd)-stained MRI is based on Gd contrast agent (CA) administration into the brain parenchyma. The strong signal increase induced by Gd CA can be converted into resolution enhancement to record microscopic MR images. Moreover, inhomogeneous distribution of the Gd CA in the brain improves the contrast between different tissues and provides new contrasts in MR images. Gd-stained MRI detects amyloid plaques, one of the microscopic lesions of Alzheimer's disease (AD), in APP SL /PS1 M146L mice or in primates. Numerous transgenic mice with various plaque typologies have been developed to mimic cerebral amyloidosis and comparison of plaque detection between animal models and humans with new imaging methods is a recurrent concern. Here, we investigated detection of amyloid plaques by Gd-stained MRI in five mouse models of amyloidosis (APP SL /PS1 M146L , APP/ PS1 dE9 , APP23, APP SwDI , and 3xTg) presenting with compact, diffuse and intracellular plaques as well as in post mortem human-AD brains. The brains were then evaluated by histology to investigate the impact of size, compactness, and iron load of amyloid plaques on their detection by MRI. We show that Gd-stained MRI allows detection of compact amyloid plaques as small as 25 µm, independently of their iron load, in mice as well as in human-AD brains

Chemically-defined camelid antibody bioconjugate for the magnetic resonance imaging of Alzheimer's disease

International audienceToday, molecular imaging of neurodegenerative diseases is mainly based on small molecule probes. Alternatively, antibodies are versatile tools that may be developed as new imaging agents. Indeed, they can be readily obtained to specifically target any antigen of interest and their scaffold can be functionalized. One of the critical issues involved in translating antibody-based probes to the clinic is the design and synthesis of perfectly-defined conjugates. Camelid single-domain antibody-fragments (VHHs) are very small and stable antibodies that are able to diffuse in tissues and potentially cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). Here, we selected a VHH (R3VQ) specifically targeting one of the main lesions of Alzheimer's disease (AD), namely the amyloid-beta (Aß) deposits. It was used as a scaffold for the design of imaging probes for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and labeled with the contrastophore gadolinium using either a random or site-specific approach. In contrast to the random strategy, the site-specific conjugation to a single reduced cysteine in the C-terminal part of the R3VQ generates a well-defined bioconjugate in a high yield process. This new imaging probe is able to cross the BBB and label Aß deposits after intravenous injection. Also, it displays improved r1 and r2 relaxivities, up to 30 times higher than a widely used clinical contrast agent, and it allows MRI detection of amyloid deposits in post mortem brain tissue of a mouse model of AD. The ability to produce chemically-defined VHH conjugates that cross the BBB opens the way for future development of tailored imaging probes targeting intracerebral antigens