Identifying Zulu military (Amakhanda) settlements in the archaeological record

A common cultural practice within southern Africa is the organisation of youths as part of an initiation ceremony. Literature refers to this practice as regimental groups, age regimental groups, age sets or simply as age groupings (Kuper 1954, 1986; Hughes 1956; Hoernlé 1962; Omer-Cooper 1966; Laband 1995; Knight 1995). After the period of aggression among the northern Nguni of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a new version of the regimental system had developed. A key component of the new system was the military settlement, which acted as an administrative centre in addition to providing regimental housing. Called amakhanda (sing. ikhanda), each community had its own architectural and socio-demographic organisation. Amakhanda were built in close association with traditional family homesteads (imizi). The close proximity and physical similarities between these two settlement types makes it difficult to distinguish them apart in the archaeological record. This study therefore examines the archaeological signature of each settlement form in order to determine whether or not it can be distinguished from any other within the archaeological record. This was done by examining and comparing the size, function and cultural material deposition of each settlement type. It was found that differences existed in the size of the central enclosure, the number and placement of huts, along with different faunal and cultural material assemblages. It emerges that these two settlements were sufficiently distinct in their function so that they represent unique features and material signatures that can be used to distinguish them in the archaeological record.https://www.archaeology.org.za/saabpm2020Anthropology and Archaeolog

Ikhanda : an ethno-historical archaeological investigation of Nguni military homesteads between the Mfolozi and Tugela Rivers, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa

The 19th century saw great changes occurring in the political organisation as well as the demographical distribution of the people living within southern Africa. These changes would lead to the creation of the ikhanda (plural amakhanda) settlement form which was unique in both its organisation and demographic composition. In recent years there has been a renewed interest in the study of settlements within southern Africa, with the main settlement model, the Central Cattle Pattern (CCP) coming under continued criticism. The aim of this study was to create a structural model for the organisation of an ikhanda settlement by drawing from ethnographic, historical and archaeological sources. This model was then compared with homesteads (imizi) within Kwa-Zulu Natal in order to determine whether an ikhanda can be distinguished from an umuzi, archaeologically. This study identified a number of differences which would potentially enable archaeologists to distinguish between amakhanda and other settlements. This model indicated that an ikhanda was organised into three structural sections namely the central enclosure, regimental housing and isigodlo; each of which was used for very specific purposes. Additionally, this study was able to identify and explain the functionality of previously unexplained features observed in the original excavations at uMgungundlovu. Despite sharing many similarities with settlements constructed according to the CCP model, the ikhanda’s unique organisation and function illustrate the limitations of using the CCP model as an umbrella term for all southern African settlements. The simultaneous existence of CCP-based imizi alongside amakhanda undermines the static nature that southern African settlements are believed to have had; indicating that superficial physical appearances may actually hide significant social, demographic and structural differences.Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria,2015.Anthropology and ArchaeologyUnrestricte