Towards quantification of the water fooptprint of paper: a first estimate of its consumptive component

For a hardcopy of this article, printed in the Netherlands, an estimated 100 l of water have been used. Most of the water is required in the forestry stage, due to evapotranspiration (green and blue water). In addition, the water footprint during the industrial stage, as accounted for in this study, consists of evaporation from water obtained from ground water and surface water (blue water). In this study estimates are made of water requirements for producing paper using different types of wood and in different parts of the world. The water footprint of printing and writing paper is estimated to be between 300 and 2600 m3/t (~2-13 l for an A4 sheet). These estimates account for paper recovery rates in different countries. This study indicates that by using recovered paper for the production of paper the global average water footprint of paper is only 60% of what it would be if no recovered paper would be used at all. Further savings may be achieved by increasing the recovery percentages worldwide. In addition, the global water footprint of paper can be reduced by choosing production sites and wood types that are more water-efficient. The results of this study suggest that the use of recovered paper may be particularly effective in reducing water footprints. This study is a first step towards a better understanding of the significance of the water footprint of paper and the effect of using recovered paper

The green and blue water footprint of paper products: methodological considerations and quantification

For a hardcopy of this report, printed in the Netherlands, an estimated 200 litres of water have been used. Water is required during different stages in the production process, from growing wood to processing pulp into the final consumer product. Most of the water is consumed in the forestry stage, where water consumption refers to the forest evapotranspiration. The water footprint during the manufacturing processes in the industrial stage consists of evaporation and contamination of ground- and surface water. In this report we assess water requirements for producing paper products using different types of wood and in different parts of the world. We quantify the combined green and blue water footprint of paper by considering the full supply chain; we do not include the grey water footprint in this study. The water footprint of printing and writing paper is estimated to be between 300 and 2600 m3/ton (2-13 litres for an A4 sheet). These figures account for the paper recovery rates as they currently are. The exact amount depends on the sort and origin of the paper used for printing. Without recovery, the global average water footprint of paper would be much larger; by using recovered paper an estimated 40% is saved globally. Further saving can be achieved by increasing the recovery percentages worldwide. For countries with a low recovered paper utilization rate a lot of room for reduction still remains. Some countries such as the Netherlands, Spain and Germany already use a lot of recovered paper. In addition, the global water footprint of paper can be reduced by choosing production sites and wood types that are more water-efficient. The findings presented in this report can be helpful in identifying the opportunities to reduce water footprints of paper consumption. This report also shows that the use of recovered paper may be very helpful in reducing water footprints

The external water footprint of the Netherlands: quantification and impact assessment

This study quantifies the external water footprint of the Netherlands by partner country and import product and assesses the impact of this footprint by contrasting the geographically explicit water footprint with water scarcity in the different parts of the world. Hotspots are identified as the places where the external water footprint of Dutch consumers is significant on the one hand and where water scarcity is serious on the other hand.\ud The study shows that Dutch consumption implies the use of water resources throughout the world, with significant impacts at specified locations. This knowledge is relevant for consumers, government and businesses when addressing the sustainability of consumer behaviour and supply chains. The results of this study can be an input to bilateral cooperation between the Netherlands and the Dutch trade partners aimed at the reduction of the negative impacts of Dutch consumption on foreign water resources. Dutch government can also engage with businesses in order to stimulate them to review the sustainability of their supply chains

A river basin as a common-pool resource: a case study for the Jaguaribe basin in Brazil

Rainfall variability and the associated water stress are of major concern in semi-arid regions subject to conflicts between water users. To achieve sustainable and stable agricultural performance it is necessary to understand\ud the interaction between natural processes and human response. This paper investigates the applicability of common-pool resource (CPR) concepts to understand governance of water resources in semi-arid river basins. This is done by evaluating the governance of water resources in the Jaguaribe basin in the semi-arid Northeast of Brazil. The results show that common-pool resource concepts offer valuable insights for explaining variations in water resource use and availability at the river basin scale. The water system in a river basin can be characterized as one large CPR consisting of asymmetrically linked smaller CPR’s. This study showed that CPR concepts are useful for explaining agricultural productivity, stability and equitability in a semi-arid river basin. The asymmetry of a river basin CPR is the cause of unidirectional externalities towards downstream. The topography, the sequence of rainfall events and distribution of reservoir capacities in a river basin strongly\ud influence the extent to which convergence of resource flow can compensate for these externalities

Water-scarcity patterns : spatiotemporal interdependencies between water use and water availability in a semi-arid river basin

This thesis addresses the interdependencies between water use and water availability and describes a model that has been developed to improve understanding of the processes that drive changes and variations in the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources in a semi-arid river basin. These processes include hydrological processes and water user responses to variations and changes in water availability. The results are relevant for climate change impact assessments and river basin management, in particular for water allocation in semi-arid environments.\ud The Jaguaribe basin in the northeast of Brazil was used as a case study. Concepts from the literature on common-pool resources were applied to analyse the extent to which the physical characteristics of a river basin facilitate or impede sustainable management of water resources in different parts of the Jaguaribe basin. The relationship between water use and water availability in a sub-basin of the Jaguaribe basin was explored. The obtained knowledge was used to design and test a multi-agent simulation approach implemented by using remotely-sensed land use data and survey data on water user decision making.\ud It was found that for the Jaguaribe basin a decrease in rainfall and runoff typically leads to a transition of irrigation water use not only from water-scarce periods to less water-scarce periods, but also from downstream areas to upstream areas. Strategic reservoir operation enables local water managers to offset the effect of decreasing rainfall and runoff with respect to irrigation water use at the sub-basin level, at the cost of further decreasing water availability at the basin level.\ud It is concluded that the theory of common-pool resources and that the concept of downstreamness, introduced and quantitatively defined in this thesis, are helpful in assessing the manageability of water resources in a river basin. Further, a multi-agent simulation approach has proven instrumental in studying interactions between water users and water resources

The actors' perceptions and expectations of their roles in BIM-based collaboration

The inter-organisational collaboration with Building Information Modelling (BIM) is one of the hottest topics in construction sector nowadays. The implementation of BIM is a complex inter-organisational process, and the sharing of information among numerous actors from multi-disciplinary backgrounds may affect the actors' role perception and performance. This study offers insights into the BIM roles of various actors by analysing a BIM-based project carried out by an integrated partnership across many tiers. The analysis identified inconsistencies between the actors' perceptions and their partners' expectations of their BIM roles. Inconsistencies in BIM roles were more related to soft rather than hard (domain-or technical) skills. Mismatches were found in the architect's role, as it was deemed necessary to be more domain-and BIM-related, contrary to their perceptions. Likewise, the suppliers' role called for an enhanced BIM orientation. The paper concludes with set of suggestions for increasing the joint responsibility and supporting the multi-actor collaboration

Using agent-based modeling to depict basin closure in the Naivasha basin, Kenya: a framework of analysis

A spatially-explicit agent-based modeling (ABM) approach is applied for depicting the processes leading to basin closure in the Naivasha basin by representing interdependencies between water availability and water use. Modeling the dynamics of water use and water availability yields patterns of their distribution over space and time. The approach allows for exploring the potential effectiveness of governance alternatives such as payment for environmental services (PES) schemes. This study shows that ABM is a promising approach for supporting water governance and can assist in increasing the understanding of the occurrence of basin closure

Sustainability of small reservoirs and large scale water availability under current conditions and climate change

Semi-arid river basins often rely on reservoirs for water supply. Small reservoirs may impact on large-scale water availability both by enhancing availability in a distributed sense and by subtracting water for large downstream user communities, e.g. served by large reservoirs. Both of these impacts of small reservoirs are subject to climate change. Using a case-study on North-East Brazil, this paper shows that climate change impacts on water availability may be severe, and impacts on distributed water availability from small reservoirs may exceed impacts on centralised water availability from large reservoirs. Next, the paper shows that the effect of small reservoirs on water availability from large reservoirs may be significant, and increase both in relative and absolute sense under unfavourable climate change

Perspectives on Assessing the Flexibility of Hospitals for Crisis Mode Operations::Lessons From the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Netherlands

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic placed healthcare design at the heart of the crisis. Hospitals faced challenges such as rapidly increasing their intensive care unit capacity, enabling physical distancing measures, quickly converting to telehealth and telework practices, and above all, keeping patients and staff safe. Improving flexibility in hospital facility design and adaptability of hospital operations to function in “crisis mode” can be seen as ways of future-proofing for pandemics. In a design brief, flexibility is typically mentioned as an important target. Meanwhile, robustness of technical infrastructure is called for, and standardization at unit level with single-occupancy inpatient accommodation may be considered a way to enhance flexibility and adaptability in dealing with a surge in infectious patients. Aim: To future-proof facility design with pandemic preparedness and resilience in mind, this study evaluated what kinds of interventions were taken in Dutch hospital facilities and what perspectives need to be considered when hospitals operate in crisis mode. Methods: We have collected data from facility and estate professionals from 30 Dutch hospitals. Using a practice-based approach, in-depth interviewing helped uncover and compare successful operational strategies and design elements that provided the flexibility needed in the early stages of the recent crisis. Results: As we looked at existing facilities and alterations made to allow hospitals to operate during the COVID-19 pandemic, we discovered that staff availability and adaptability were deemed crucial. Conclusion: We add the perspective of staff as an essential factor to be considered when future-proofing hospital facility desigr crisis mode operation.</p

Exploring the Influence of the Visual Attributes of Kaplan's Preference Matrix in the Assessment of Urban Parks: A Discrete Choice Analysis

A significant majority of the literature on natural environments and urban green spaces justifies the preferences that people have for natural environments using four predictors defined by Kaplan's preference matrix theory, namely coherence, legibility, complexity, and mystery. However, there are no studies implicitly focusing on the visual attributes assigned to each of these four predictors. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the influence of nine visual attributes derived from the four predictors of Kaplan's matrix on people's preferences in the context of urban parks. A discrete choice experiment was used to obtain responses from a sample of 396 students of Golestan University. Students randomly evaluated their preferences towards a set of potential scenarios with urban park images. The results of a random parameter logit analysis showed that all of the attributes of complexity (variety of elements, number of colors, and organization of elements) and one attribute each of coherence (uniformity), mystery (visual access), and legibility (distinctive elements) affect students' choices for urban parks, while one attribute each of mystery (physical access) and legibility (wayfinding) did not affect the choices. Furthermore, the results indicated a preference for heterogeneity of the attributes. The findings of this study can provide instructions for designing parks