Solution of the Gardner problem on the lock-in range of phase-locked loop

The lock-in frequency and lock-in range concepts were introduced in 1966 by Floyd Gardner to describe the frequency differences of phase-locked loop based circuit for which the loop can acquire lock within one beat, i.e. without cycle slipping. These concepts became popular among engineering community and were given in various engineering publications. However rigorous mathematical explanations these concepts turned out to be a challenging task, thus, in the 2nd edition of Gardner's well-known work, Phaselock Techniques, he wrote that "despite its vague reality, lock-in range is a useful concept" and posed the problem "to define exactly any unique lock-in frequency". In this paper an effective solution for Gardner's problem on the unique definition of the lock-in frequency and lock-in range is discussed. The lock-in range and lock-in frequency computation is explained on the example of classical second-order PLL with lead-lag and active proportional-integral filters. The obtained results can also be used for the lock-in range computation of such PLL-based circuits as two-phase PLL, two-phase Costas loop, BPSK Costas loop, and optical Costas loop, used in intersatellite communication

Hold-in, pull-in, and lock-in ranges of PLL circuits: rigorous mathematical definitions and limitations of classical theory

The terms hold-in, pull-in (capture), and lock-in ranges are widely used by engineers for the concepts of frequency deviation ranges within which PLL-based circuits can achieve lock under various additional conditions. Usually only non-strict definitions are given for these concepts in engineering literature. After many years of their usage, F.~Gardner in the 2nd edition of his well-known work, Phaselock Techniques, wrote "There is no natural way to define exactly any unique lock-in frequency" and "despite its vague reality, lock-in range is a useful concept." Recently these observations have led to the following advice given in a handbook on synchronization and communications "We recommend that you check these definitions carefully before using them." In this survey it is shown that, from a mathematical point of view, in some cases the hold-in and pull-in "ranges" may not be the intervals of values but a union of intervals and thus their widely used definitions require clarification. Rigorous mathematical definitions for the hold-in, pull-in, and lock-in ranges are given. An effective solution for the problem on the unique definition of the lock-in frequency, posed by Gardner, is suggested

Optical Costas loop: pull-in range estimation and hidden oscillations

In this work we consider a mathematical model of the optical Costas loop. The pull-in range of the model is estimated by analytical and numerical methods. Difficulties of numerical analysis, related to the existence of so-called hidden oscillations in the phase space, are discussed.Comment: submitted to IFA

Limitations of PLL simulation: hidden oscillations in MatLab and SPICE

Nonlinear analysis of the phase-locked loop (PLL) based circuits is a challenging task, thus in modern engineering literature simplified mathematical models and simulation are widely used for their study. In this work the limitations of numerical approach is discussed and it is shown that, e.g. hidden oscillations may not be found by simulation. Corresponding examples in SPICE and MatLab, which may lead to wrong conclusions concerning the operability of PLL-based circuits, are presented

Nonlinear analysis of PLL by the harmonic balance method

In this paper we discuss the application of the harmonic balance method for the global analysis of the classical phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit. The harmonic balance is non rigorous method, which is widely used %,often without rigorous justification, for the computation of periodic solutions and the checking of global stability. The proof of the absence of periodic solutions is a key step to establish the global stability of PLL and estimate the pull-in range (which is an interval of the frequency deviations such that any solution tends to one of the equilibria). The advantages and limitations of the study of the classical PLL with lead-lag filter using the harmonic balance method is discussed.Comment: submitted to IFA

Lock-in range of PLL-based circuits with proportionally-integrating filter and sinusoidal phase detector characteristic

In the present work PLL-based circuits with sinusoidal phase detector characteristic and active proportionally-integrating (PI) filter are considered. The notion of lock-in range -- an important characteristic of PLL-based circuits, which corresponds to the synchronization without cycle slipping, is studied. For the lock-in range a rigorous mathematical definition is discussed. Numerical and analytical estimates for the lock-in range are obtained

Lock-in range of classical PLL with impulse signals and proportionally-integrating filter

In the present work the model of PLL with impulse signals and active PI filter in the signal's phase space is described. For the considered PLL the lock-in range is computed analytically and obtained result are compared with numerical simulations.Comment: arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:1603.0840

A short survey on QPSK Costas loop mathematical models

The Costas loop is a modification of the phase-locked loop circuit, which demodulates data and recovers carrier from the input signal. The Costas loop is essentially a nonlinear control system and its nonlinear analysis is a challenging task. Thus, simplified mathematical models and their numerical simulation are widely used for its analysis. At the same time for phase-locked loop circuits there are known various examples where the results of such simplified analysis are differ substantially from the real behavior of the circuit. In this survey the corresponding problems are demonstrated and discussed for the QPSK Costas loop.Comment: submitted to IFA

Limitations of the classical phase-locked loop analysis

Nonlinear analysis of the classical phase-locked loop (PLL) is a challenging task. In classical engineering literature simplified mathematical models and simulation are widely used for its study. In this work the limitations of classical engineering phase-locked loop analysis are demonstrated, e.g., hidden oscillations, which can not be found by simulation, are discussed. It is shown that the use of simplified dynamical models and the application of simulation may lead to wrong conclusions concerning the operability of PLL-based circuits

Hidden and self-excited attractors in Chua circuit: SPICE simulation and synchronization

Nowadays various chaotic secure communication systems based on synchronization of chaotic circuits are widely studied. To achieve synchronization, the control signal proportional to the difference between the circuits signals, adjust the state of one circuit. In this paper the synchronization of two Chua circuits is simulated in SPICE. It is shown that the choice of control signal is be not straightforward, especially in the case of multistability and hidden attractors