Incremental grouping of image elements in vision

One important task for the visual system is to group image elements that belong to an object and to segregate them from other objects and the background. We here present an incremental grouping theory (IGT) that addresses the role of object-based attention in perceptual grouping at a psychological level and, at the same time, outlines the mechanisms for grouping at the neurophysiological level. The IGT proposes that there are two processes for perceptual grouping. The first process is base grouping and relies on neurons that are tuned to feature conjunctions. Base grouping is fast and occurs in parallel across the visual scene, but not all possible feature conjunctions can be coded as base groupings. If there are no neurons tuned to the relevant feature conjunctions, a second process called incremental grouping comes into play. Incremental grouping is a time-consuming and capacity-limited process that requires the gradual spread of enhanced neuronal activity across the representation of an object in the visual cortex. The spread of enhanced neuronal activity corresponds to the labeling of image elements with object-based attention

IL2 Inducible T-cell Kinase, a Novel Therapeutic Target in Melanoma

PURPOSE: Interleukin-2 inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) promoter CpG sites are hypomethylated in melanomas compared to nevi. The expression of ITK in melanomas, however, has not been established and requires elucidation. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: An ITK specific monoclonal antibody was used to probe sections from de-identified, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor blocks or cell line arrays and ITK was visualized by immunohistochemistry. Levels of ITK protein differed among melanoma cell lines and representative lines were transduced with four different lentiviral constructs that each contained an shRNA designed to knockdown ITK mRNA levels. The effects of the selective ITK inhibitor BI 10N on cell lines and mouse models were also determined. RESULTS: ITK protein expression increased with nevus to metastatic melanoma progression. In melanoma cell lines, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of ITK decreased proliferation and migration and increased the percentage of cells in the G0/G1 phase. Treatment of melanoma-bearing mice with BI 10N reduced growth of ITK-expressing xenografts or established autochthonous (Tyr-Cre/Pten (null)/Braf (V600E)) melanomas. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that ITK, formerly considered an immune cell-specific protein, is aberrantly expressed in melanoma and promotes tumor development and progression. Our finding that ITK is aberrantly expressed in most metastatic melanomas suggests that inhibitors of ITK may be efficacious for melanoma treatment. The efficacy of a small molecule ITK inhibitor in the Tyr-Cre/Pten(null)/Braf(V600E) mouse melanoma model supports this possibility