Vorwort

Im Juni 1992 befasst sich die UN-Konferenz über Umwelt und Entwicklung (UNCED, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro mittien zerstörerischen Auswirkungen des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums auf die globale Umwelt. Ausgangspunkt isf die Tatsache, dass der grosse Teil der globalen Umweltzerstörung auf Ursachen in den Industrieländern zurückzuführen ist, aber auch die Einsicht, dass nur ein gemeinsames Vorgehen aller Länder die negative Entwicklung im Umweltberei..

Greening Capitalism? A Marxist Critique of Carbon Markets

Climate change is increasingly being recognized as a serious threat to dominant modes of social organization, inspiring suggestions that capitalism itself needs to be transformed if we are to ‘decarbonize’ the global economy. Since the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, carbon markets have emerged as the main politico-economic tools in global efforts to address climate change. Newell and Paterson (2010) have recently claimed that the embrace of carbon markets by financial and political elites constitutes a possible first step towards the transformation of current modes of capitalist organization into a new form of greener, more sustainable ‘climate capitalism.’ In this paper, we argue that the institutionalization of carbon markets does not, in fact, represent a move towards the radical transformation of capitalism, but is better understood as the most recent expression of ongoing trends of ecological commodification and expropriation, driving familiar processes of uneven and crisis-prone development. In this paper, we review four critical Marxist concepts: metabolic rift (Foster, 1999), capitalism as world ecology (Moore, 2011a), uneven development and accumulation through dispossession (Harvey, 2003, 2006), and sub-imperialism (Marini, 1972, 1977), developing a framework for a Marxist analysis of carbon markets. Our analysis shows that carbon markets form part of a longer historical development of global capitalism and its relation to nature. Carbon markets, we argue, serve as creative new modes of accumulation, but are unlikely to transform capitalist dynamics in ways that might foster a more sustainable global economy. Our analysis also elucidates, in particular, the role that carbon markets play in exacerbating uneven development within the Global South, as elites in emerging economies leverage carbon market financing to pursue new strategies of sub-imperial expansion. </jats:p

The effects of public private partnerships on smallholder cocoa farmers' livelihoods in Indonesia : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand

Public private partnerships (PPPs) have emerged as a development strategy in various sectors in several developed countries since the late 1970s. In the Indonesian context, however, PPPs in the agriculture sector are relatively new. This thesis explores claims that PPPs can be a potential development approach to address rural poverty and improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers. By utilising the Sustainable Livelihood Approach, this thesis investigates various PPP ideas and practices in the Indonesian agricultural sector and explores the extent to which a PPP implementation has affected smallholder farmers’ livelihoods and what it means for them. This study is driven by the idea that the nature of a PPP involves a complex and dynamic relationship that encompasses diverse interests and resources. A content analysis of four different PPP project reports and one case study, the PPP within the Rural Empowerment and Agricultural Development (READ-PPP) project in Indonesia, found that PPPs are quite diverse in the agriculture sector and particularly in the cocoa sector. Having used qualitative research methods, involving semi-structured interviews with twelve smallholder cocoa farmers and eight informants from relevant institutions, this study shows that the READ-PPP has had varying impacts on farmers’ livelihoods. Most farmers felt improvements in their capacity, cocoa productivity, income, and they made behaviour changes as a result of the programme. This study also reveals that the farmers did not equally experience the benefits of the programme. The three key challenges that affected the farmers’ experiences of the programme included: a lack of company support as a service provider, a lack of sustainability of outcomes, and the individual farmers’ level of resources. Analysis of the results also found that farmers who were geographically close to company operations had better outcomes than farmers in other areas, which showed that the company involved in the PPP has a particular interest to pursue its company's benefits. In this respect, this thesis concludes that the effects of PPPs in addressing rural poverty and improving smallholder cocoa farmers' livelihoods have been inequitable

The success and value of non-formal education for sustainable development : the case of children in the Wilderness Eco-Club Programme in the Zambezi region, Southern Africa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, New Zealand

Education for sustainable development (ESD) has emerged strongly in recent years to become a key mechanism for moving towards a more sustainable future. The aim of this study is to gauge the success and value of non-formal ESD using a case study approach. Children in the Wilderness (CITW), a subsidiary organisation of ecotourism operator Wilderness Safaris, offers an extracurricular ESD programme for primary school children, and their Zambezi Region operation was selected as the case study site. A qualitative research approach was taken for this study, employing data collection methods such as interviews, focus groups, observation, and the examination of national policy documents and the CITW eco-club curriculum. The CITW eco-club programme responds to UNESCO’s (2005) characteristics for ESD, particularly regarding the establishment of relationships with the wider community, and a multi-method, learner-centred approach to teaching. While the national governments in Zambia and Zimbabwe aim to respond more strongly to UNESCO’s characteristics, they are constrained by limited human and financial capital resources. The eco-club programme, however, complements the formal sector by providing teacher training and resources, demonstrating the value of the programme in providing students with a more enriching learning experience. This study concludes that the non-formal education sector provides significant support to the formal education system, leading to improved vertical integration between international guidelines and implementation at a local level. The eco-club programme enables CITW to achieve its aim and vision by focusing on prevalent issues such as poverty, deforestation, poaching, and pollution. While the scope of the research and the limited time spent in the field did not allow for a detailed examination of the eco-club programme’s influence on proenvironmental behaviour, it became clear that some pro-environmental behaviour has occurred as a result of the programme

消費者物価指数関連統計にみる1990年代日本の消費生活様式の特徴

What is considered important in industrial countries is the changing consumption patterns discussed at the UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the Japanese lifestyle in the 1990s from the data related Consumer Price Index (CPI). The CPI is calculated to measure chronologically, the price movements of commodities and services which are purchased by consumers\u27 households throughout the country. Index items are selected according to the relative importance of each item to the total consumption expenditures, the representativeness of items in price movements, and the feasibility of price collection over time, thus index items may represent price movements of all the commodities and services purchased by consumers. In and after 1955, the base periods have been revised every five years. The results were as follows: the imported commodities increased, a tendency toward "Luxury" was recognized, leisure oriented product and services increased, commodities for the promotion of health multiplied, traditional commodities decreased, and the trend toward a service economy expanded. It was showed that the CPI related data was useful for understanding a part of actual situation of the Japanese lifestyle

Livelihood Strategies and Environmental Management Practices in Northern Thailand National Park Communities : A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Natural Resource Management at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

In Northern Thailand, the establishment of national parks is at the forefront of efforts to achieve biodiversity conservation and environmental management while providing socio-economic benefits to society. However, national parks regulations and development interventions have created both opportunities and constraints for the Indigenous hill tribe communities living within the national parks. These communities have, out of necessity, adapted and developed their livelihood strategies and environmental management practices to maintain their socio-economic welfare and ecological sustainability. This study employed Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) as a mixed qualitative research strategy to investigate the livelihood strategies and environmental management practices in Doi Suthep-Pui, Doi Inthanon, and Ob Luang National Parks in Northern Thailand. The main research methods used were interviews, observation, and document analysis to support data that gained from the PRA methods. The aim of this study is to gain insight into the livelihood strategies and environmental management practices of six Indigenous hill tribe communities living in the parks. Interviews were conducted with villagers, national park officials, academics, and representatives from non-government organisations and tourism agencies. The interview data was also analysed to investigate how co-management initiatives and livelihood development projects by national parks officials and external organisations influence Indigenous communities’ livelihood strategies. It was found that the livelihood strategies of the Indigenous hill tribe communities encompass a diverse combination of activities related to their social and ecological relationships in order to ensure sustained socio-economic well-being. Communities engage in sustainable agricultural practices, community-based natural resource management activities and community-based ecotourism enterprises as their significant livelihood strategies. However, while there has been some consultation, co-management, and collaborative policy-making between government and local communities, further improvement of transparency, consistency and accountability is needed. It is argued that greater community empowerment and participation in natural resource management decisions is crucial to enhance both sustainable livelihoods and environmental conservation efforts within Northern Thailand’s national parks

The effects of public private partnerships on smallholder cocoa farmers' livelihoods in Indonesia : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand

Public private partnerships (PPPs) have emerged as a development strategy in various sectors in several developed countries since the late 1970s. In the Indonesian context, however, PPPs in the agriculture sector are relatively new. This thesis explores claims that PPPs can be a potential development approach to address rural poverty and improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers. By utilising the Sustainable Livelihood Approach, this thesis investigates various PPP ideas and practices in the Indonesian agricultural sector and explores the extent to which a PPP implementation has affected smallholder farmers’ livelihoods and what it means for them. This study is driven by the idea that the nature of a PPP involves a complex and dynamic relationship that encompasses diverse interests and resources. A content analysis of four different PPP project reports and one case study, the PPP within the Rural Empowerment and Agricultural Development (READ-PPP) project in Indonesia, found that PPPs are quite diverse in the agriculture sector and particularly in the cocoa sector. Having used qualitative research methods, involving semi-structured interviews with twelve smallholder cocoa farmers and eight informants from relevant institutions, this study shows that the READ-PPP has had varying impacts on farmers’ livelihoods. Most farmers felt improvements in their capacity, cocoa productivity, income, and they made behaviour changes as a result of the programme. This study also reveals that the farmers did not equally experience the benefits of the programme. The three key challenges that affected the farmers’ experiences of the programme included: a lack of company support as a service provider, a lack of sustainability of outcomes, and the individual farmers’ level of resources. Analysis of the results also found that farmers who were geographically close to company operations had better outcomes than farmers in other areas, which showed that the company involved in the PPP has a particular interest to pursue its company's benefits. In this respect, this thesis concludes that the effects of PPPs in addressing rural poverty and improving smallholder cocoa farmers' livelihoods have been inequitable

The gender dimensions of environmental change : an exploration of the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women in Zimbabwe : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand

Processes of environmental change have taken place for centuries both as a result of natural variability and anthropogenic forces. As a concept however, environmental change continues to be used narrowly to refer to environmental changes which are biophysical in nature, and mostly those with global precedence. In recent times incidences of environmental change have become more complex as new patterns of change are threatening the livelihoods of those living in developing countries, undoing many development gains. As such, there is an increasing desire to understand the implications of environmental changes, particularly for those whose livelihoods are natural resource dependent, many of whom live in rural areas, and many of whom are poor. Despite this growing interest, rural people and especially the rural poor are little seen or heard; their environmental change experiences are thus misunderstood, and solutions proposed do not take into consideration the local context or experiences. There remains also a normative perspective which positions women as automatically vulnerable to environmental change, specifically vis-à-vis men. In doing so women’s experiences of environmental change are homogenised and men’s experiences are rendered invisible. Drawing on the case of Zimbabwe this study critically considers the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women to environmental change so as to ascertain gendered impacts and differential vulnerabilities. To capture fully the subjective lived experience of both men and women to environmental change, this study lends itself to qualitative research. Thus research methods such as semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and gender analysis are central to the methodology. In terms of findings, this study argues against looking at environmental change as a technocratic subject accessible only from a global frame and accessed only by a technocratic few, proposing that the people experiencing environmental change at a local level should determine the environmental changes of communal concern. This study also highlights the importance of understanding the vulnerabilities of rural men and women within a well-conceived notion of context, taking into account rural disadvantage resulting from colonialism, and the current Zimbabwean crisis

An integrated national strategy for resource and environmental management in post-apartheid Namibia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University

This thesis presents a structure for integrated strategic planning across levels of government in Namibia. The study advocates necessary preconditions for the preparation of An Integrated National Strategy for Resource and Environmental Management in Post-Apartheid Namibia. Because the diagnostic nature of an integrated national strategy requires a condensed assessment of the state of the economy, people, institutions and natural resources, this study commences with a critical examination of the impact of German genocide and South African apartheid policies on the people, and natural and physical resources of Namibia, and illustrates how Namibia has begun to develop out the problems associated with colonial influence. Current underdevelopment and poverty in Namibia is mainly due to unsustainable extraction of resources which has generally benefited South Africa and its provincial satellites. In order to understand Namibia's economic situation, its profile is analysed in comparative study with other SADC member states. Namibia needs to encourage sustained economic growth in order to achieve human development objectives. It is especially important to integrate environmental management at all levels of government to achieve unity of the people and sustainable exploitation of natural and physical resources. Namibia's current state of natural and physical resources is analysed by taking into consideration the immediate actions of the current Government which succeeded colonial oppression. Adverse effects of past exploitation are compiled, and recommendations of various theorists are offered as supportive evidence of the requirements for an integrated national strategy for resource management. The absence of planning at the local level of government is the major cause of inconsistency in both policy-making and plan preparation, and is also identified as major threat to the achievement of sustainable economic development in Namibia. Changes regarding the strengthening of institutional capabilities, application of economic instruments in management of natural resources, methods of plan preparation, strategic policies, including integrated monitoring procedures are proposed. Suggestions are made about means by which these recommendations could be implemented to achieve sustainable development of natural and physical resources in Namibia. The conclusion of this study suggests also that development planning of natural and physical resources need to be nationally diversified by devolving planning authority to sub-national and sub-regional levels of government. The idea is to relieve Namibia's National Planning Commission from the burden of planning at the local level of government and to efficiently spread administrative responsibility across a multinuclear umbrella of private and public sectors involved in strategic planning

Education as sustainable development : Mangaia, Cook Islands

Listed in 2016 Dean's List of Exceptional ThesesSustainable development (SD) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) became prominent in the 1990s. Problematically, these western centric constructs have sometimes been used to justify greater economic growth despite concern about the environment. Simultaneously, greater awareness of the pivotal role culture plays in development has demanded the rethinking of SD in terms of culturally responsive and contextually relevant ‘alternatives to’ development. Using the case of Mangaia in the Cook Islands the aim of this research was to draw out Mangaians own visions for SD and their consequent expectations for the type of ESD delivered to students in the classroom. Situating the research within a hopeful postdevelopment framework a culturally responsive, open ended, critical research methodology was used to gain an understanding of what constitutes a Mangaian SD worldview. Using participatory semi structured interviews underpinned by Mangaian uriuri manako (reflective problem solving) preliminary frameworks for Mangaian SD and ESD were co-constructed. This thesis highlights that to Mangaian people SD is complex and multi modal consisting of an indigenous development centred on oraanga Mangaia and alternative modernities, embedded in culture, operating at the margins of the global economy. This Mangaian view of SD, interacting with externally driven development, is continually reinvented by the Mangaian people using both indigenous and western knowledge, in response to issues of sustainability. The study argues that current western centric ‘Education about’ and ‘Education for’ SD programmes do not reflect the cultural and contextual reality of SD in the Global South. Instead, Education as Sustainable Development (EasSD) is presented as a novel concept, which embraces learning taking place within culture and is able to respond to the context and dynamism of hopeful post-development settings: it is argued that this approach would provide students with the knowledge to be able to fashion community-based sustainable futures. An EasSD approach would expose students to a broader range of livelihoods options and have the ability to strengthen a student’s language, culture and identity while potentially improving their academic outcomes. A strength based implementation that draws on the support of all development and education stakeholders offers the best chance of actualising EasSD and so empowering students with the ability to participate in, and lead, their own communities’ SD