Higher Education for Development: An Exploration of the Necessities, Barriers of Management, Governance and Regulation of Higher Learning Institutions in Developing Countries

This review paper focused on the major transformations undertaken to develop higher education. The higher education systems have been undergoing a major transformation influenced by national and international developments in developing countries. The main causes of such transformations were based on rapid expansion of student enrolment, a relative decrease in public funding along with a shortage of private funding, the increasing importance of research and innovation in the global and knowledge-based economy, and wider competition between higher education institutions. The role of higher education as a primary tool for development of countries has been identified. Developing countries intend to build a strong vibrant higher education system that will be internationally competitive, meet the demands of the population and regional economy for skilled and educated workers, and deliver research, innovation and knowledge transfer to support social and economic development. This paper has tempted to review the necessities and barriers that hinder development of countries through the development of higher education by adequate management, governance and regulation. The paper also suggested related solutions to barriers that were identified in this review. Keywords: Management, Governance, Institutional autonomy, Transparency, Higher education

Assessing the temporal mixing and stratification in Lake Kivu

The thermal structure and vertical mixing of lakes change with surface meteorology and control the vertical distribution of particulate and dissolved substances and organisms in water bodies. This study assessed the effects of changes in the surface meteorology on vertical mixing in the deep meromictic Lake Kivu, Africa (485 m) with a major chemocline between 255 and 262 m and a mixolimnion that undergoes seasonal mixing. Vertical mixing and stratification were described over diel and seasonal scales in the upper 100 m layer of the lake and the indices of the water column stability were estimated. Trends in the diel and seasonal variability were examined and described for meteorological variables: air temperature, wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity, rain and shortwave and longwave radiation. ConductivityTemperature-Depth (CTD) profiles of temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll fluorescence and pH were used to describe the vertical structure of the water column and to analyse the time series. Mixing and water stability indices were estimated from temperature and density data. A seasonal signal in the meteorology observed in the dry season was characterized by a decrease of the relative humidity to ~ 70 % and that of longwave radiation to ~ 370 W/m2 and a slight increase of the southeasterly winds to ~ 3.5 m/s that occurs after the rainy season. Variability in air temperature and shortwave radiation was very limited. The vertical structure of the mixed layer was nearly isothermal in the morning conditions, warmed by a maximum of 1oC as a result of the sun heat accumulation and stratified late in the afternoons. Deep seasonal mixing occurred in the dry season and reached a depth of ~55 m when the water column was cool and nearly homogeneous with 23.4oC. The lake water started to stratify towards the end of August. The Chlorophyll fluorescence and the dissolved oxygen remained enclosed in shallow layers during stratification and deepened with the mixing. The conductivity was steady above the thermocline. The pH varied significantly at 60 m, chi sq = 34.409, d.f. = 3, p < 0.001 for 2015-2017 as opposed to chi sq. = 2.164, df = 3, p = 0.5391 for 2012. In 2016, the mixolimnion remained warm with less mixing. In 2017, because the seasonal peak in the meteorology started as early as April, the epilimnetic temperatures were cooler and the seasonal mixing was deeper and longer than in 2016. The hypolimnetic temperatures, measured between 70 and 100 m, showed a warming trend of 0.016oC/year between November 2015 and August 2017. High buoyancy frequency (18 cph) and Schmidt stability (11 kJ/m2) were observed during the stratification period. The Wedderburn number followed the same pattern as the thermocline depths and ranged from 1 to 22. The seasonal mixing lasted for three to four months (May-August period) with the duration and the intensity of the mixing varying from year to year. The mixolimnion of Lake Kivu is weakly stratified during the dry-mixing season when the mixed layer dropped to 55 m and moderately stratified during the wetstratification period when the mixed layer is limited between the upper 17 to 30 m

Need for harmonized long-term multi-lake monitoring of African Great Lakes

To ensure the long-term sustainable use of African Great Lakes (AGL), and to better understand the functioning of these ecosystems, authorities, managers and scientists need regularly collected scientific data and information of key environmental indicators over multi-years to make informed decisions. Monitoring is regularly conducted at some sites across AGL; while at others sites, it is rare or conducted irregularly in response to sporadic funding or short-term projects/studies. Managers and scientists working on the AGL thus often lack critical long-term data to evaluate and gauge ongoing changes. Hence, we propose a multi-lake approach to harmonize data collection modalities for better understanding of regional and global environmental impacts on AGL. Climate variability has had strong impacts on all AGL in the recent past. Although these lakes have specific characteristics, their limnological cycles show many similarities. Because different anthropogenic pressures take place at the different AGL, harmonized multi-lake monitoring will provide comparable data to address the main drivers of concern (climate versus regional anthropogenic impact). To realize harmonized long-term multi-lake monitoring, the approach will need: (1) support of a wide community of researchers and managers; (2) political goodwill towards a common goal for such monitoring; and (3) sufficient capacity (e.g., institutional, financial, human and logistic resources) for its implementation. This paper presents an assessment of the state of monitoring the AGL and possible approaches to realize a long-term, multi-lake harmonized monitoring strategy. Key parameters are proposed. The support of national and regional authorities is necessary as each AGL crosses international boundaries

Need for harmonized long-term multi-lake monitoring of African Great Lakes

To ensure the long-term sustainable use of African Great Lakes (AGL), and to better understand the functioning of these ecosystems, authorities, managers and scientists need regularly collected scientific data and information of key environmental indicators over multi-years to make informed decisions. Monitoring is regularly conducted at some sites across AGL; while at others sites, it is rare or conducted irregularly in response to sporadic funding or short-term projects/studies. Managers and scientists working on the AGL thus often lack critical long-term data to evaluate and gauge ongoing changes. Hence, we propose a multi-lake approach to harmonize data collection modalities for better understanding of regional and global environmental impacts on AGL. Climate variability has had strong impacts on all AGL in the recent past. Although these lakes have specific characteristics, their limnological cycles show many similarities. Because different anthropogenic pressures take place at the different AGL, harmonized multi-lake monitoring will provide comparable data to address the main drivers of concern (climate versus regional anthropogenic impact). To realize harmonized long-term multi-lake monitoring, the approach will need: (1) support of a wide community of researchers and managers; (2) political goodwill towards a common goal for such monitoring; and (3) sufficient capacity (e.g., institutional, financial, human and logistic resources) for its implementation. This paper presents an assessment of the state of monitoring the AGL and possible approaches to realize a long-term, multi-lake harmonized monitoring strategy. Key parameters are proposed. The support of national and regional authorities is necessary as each AGL crosses international boundaries