Electrolyte disorders and arrhythmogenesis

Electrolyte disorders can alter cardiac ionic currents kinetics and depending on the changes can promote proarrhythmic or antiarrhythmic effects. The present report reviews the mechanisms, electrophysiolgical (EP), electrocardiographic (ECG), and clinical consequences of electrolyte disorders. Potassium (K+) is the most abundent intracellular cation and hypokalemia is the most commont electrolyte abnormality encountered in clinical practice. The most signifcant ECG manifestation of hypokalemia is a prominent U wave. Several cardiac and non cardiac drugs are known to suppress the HERG K+ channel and hence the IK, and especially in the presence of hypokalemia, can result in prolonged action potential duration and QT interval, QTU alternans, early afterdepolarizations, and torsade de pointes ventricular tachyarrythmia (TdP VT). Hyperkalemia affects up to 8% of hospitalized patients mainly in the setting of compromised renal function. The ECG manifestation of hyperkalemia depends on serum K+ level. At 5.5–7.0 mmol/L K+, tall peaked, narrow-based T waves are seen. At > 10.0 mmol/L K+, sinus arrest, marked intraventricular conduction delay, ventricular techycardia, and ventricular fibrillation can develop. Isolated abnormalities of extracellular calcium (Ca++) produce clinically significant EP effects only when they are extreme in either direction. Hypocalcemia, frequently seen in the setting of chronic renal insufficiency, results in prolonged ST segment and QT interval while hypercalcemia, usually seen with hyperparathyroidism, results in shortening of both intervals. Although magnesium is the second most abudent intracellular cation, the significance of magnesium disorders are controversial partly because of the frequent association of other electrolyte abnormalities. However, IV magnesium by blocking the L-type Ca++ current can succesfully terminate TdP VT without affecting the prolonged QT interval. Finally, despite the frequency of sodium abnormalities, particularly hyponatremia, its EP effects are rarely clinically significant. (Cardiol J 2011; 18, 3: 233–245

Electrolyte disorders and arrhythmogenesis

Abstract Electrolyte disorders can alter cardiac ionic currents kinetics and depending on the change

Pathophysiology, risk stratification, and management of sudden cardiac death in coronary artery disease

Management of sudden cardiac death (SCD) is undergoing radical change in direction. It is becoming increasingly appreciated that besides depressed left ventricular systolic function and the conventional risk stratification tools, new markers for plaque vulnerability, enhanced thrombogenesis, specific genetic alterations of the autonomic nervous system, cardiac sarcolemmal and contractile proteins, and familial clustering may better segregate patients with atherosclerotic coronary artery disease (CAD) who are at high risk of SCD from those who may suffer from nonfatal ischemic events. Better understanding of pathophysiologic processes such as post-myocardial infarction remodeling, the transition from compensated hypertrophy to heart failure, and the increased cardiovascular risk of CAD in the presence of diabetes or even a pre-diabetic state will help to improve both risk stratification and management. The rapidly developing fields of microchips technology, and proteomics may allow rapid and cost-effective mass screening of multiple risk factors for SCD. The ultimate goal is not only to change the current direction of management strategy of SCD away from increased ICD utilization, but to identify novel methods for risk stratification, risk modification, and prevention of SCD that could be applied to the general public at large. (Cardiol J 2010; 17, 1: 4-10

Risk stratification for arrhythmic events in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia: Role of programmed ventricular stimulation and the signal-averaged electrocardiogram

AbstractObjectives. This study investigated prediction of arrhythmic events by the signal-averaged electrocardiogram (ECG) and programmed stimulation in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy.Background. Risk stratification in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy remains controversial.Methods. Eighty patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and spontaneous nonsustained ventricular tachycardia underwent signal-averaged electrocardiography (both time-domain and spectral turbulence analysis) and programmed stimulation. All patients were followed up for a mean of 22 ± 26 months.Results. Sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia was induced in 10 patients (13%), who all received amiodarone. The remaining 70 patients were followed up without antiarrhythmic therapy. Of the 80 patients, 15% had abnormal findings on the time-domain signal-averaged ECG, and 39% had abnormal findings on spectral turbulence analysis. Time-domain signal-averaged electrocardiography had a better predictive accuracy for induced ventricular tachycardia than spectral turbulence analysis (88% vs. 66%, p < 0.01). During follow-up, there were 9 arrhythmic events (5 sudden deaths, 4 spontaneous ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation) and 10 nonsudden cardiac deaths. Cox regression analysis showed that no variables predicted arrhythmic events or total cardiac deaths. The 2-year actuarial survival free of arrhythmic events was similar in patients with or without abnormal findings on the signal-averaged ECG or induced ventricular tachycardia.Conclusions. In patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, 1) there is a strong correlation between abnormal findings on the time-domain signal-averaged ECG and induced ventricular tachycardia, but both findings are uncommon; and 2) normal findings on the signal-averaged ECG, as well as failure to induce ventricular tachycardia, do not imply a benign outcome

Cardiac Electrophysiology in the Older Population.

There is increasing evidence that significant primary alterations of cardiac electrophysiologic properties occur with the normal aging process. The age-related changes in cardiac electrophysiologic parameters are seen as alterations in the surface electrocardiogram, depressed sinus and atrioventricular nodal function, and increased refractoriness of the cardiac tissue. The mechanisms underlying these changes may consist of structural changes of the conduction system, autonomic nervous system dysfunction, or changes in cellular electrophysiology. As a result of these changes, the responsiveness of the aging heart to cardiotropic drugs is different from that of the younger heart. Elderly subjects are prone to certain electrophysiologic syndromes that merit special consideration