Management factors affecting adrenal glucocorticoid activity of tourist camp elephants in Thailand and implications for elephant welfare.

Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations and camp management factors (work routine, walking, restraint, rest area, foraging), and to other welfare indicators (stereotypic behaviors, body condition, foot health, and skin wounds). Data were obtained on 84 elephants (18 males and 66 females) from 15 elephant camps over a 1-year period. Elephants were examined every 3 months and assigned a body condition score, foot score, and wound score. Fecal samples were collected twice monthly for FGM analysis. Contrary to some beliefs, elephants in the observation only program where mahouts did not carry an ankus for protection had higher FGM concentrations compared to those at camps that offered riding with a saddle and shows. Elephants that were tethered in the forest at night had lower FGM concentrations compared to elephants that were kept in open areas inside the camps. There was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and occurrence of stereotypy, which was not anticipated. Thus, assessing adrenal activity via monitoring of FGM concentrations can provide important information on factors affecting the well-being of elephants. Results suggest that more naturalistic housing conditions and providing opportunities to exercise may be good for elephants under human care in Thailand, and that a no riding, no hook policy does not necessarily guarantee good welfare

Effect of time and temperature on stability of progestagens, testosterone and cortisol in Asian elephant blood stored with and without anticoagulant

The value of biological samples collected in the field is compromised if storage conditions result in analyte degradation, especially in warmer climates like Thailand. We evaluated the effects of time and temperature on immunoactive steroid hormone stability in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) blood stored with and without an anti-coagulant before centrifugation. For each elephant (5 male, 5 female), whole blood was aliquoted (n = 2 ml each) into 13 red top (without anticoagulant) or purple top (with anticoagulant) tubes. One tube from each treatment was centrifuged immediately and the serum or plasma frozen at -20°C (Time 0, T0). The remaining 12 aliquots were divided into stored temperature groups: 4°C, room temperature (RT, ~22°C), and 37°C, and centrifuged after 6, 24, 48 and 62 h of storage. Serum and plasma concentrations of progestagens in females, testosterone in males and cortisol in both sexes were quantified by validated enzyme immunoassays. Steroid concentration differences from T0 were determined by a randomized complete block ANOVA and Dunnett's tests. The only evidence of hormone degradation was cortisol and testosterone concentrations in serum stored at 37°C. Testosterone concentrations declined by 34% at 48 h and 52% at 62 h, cortisol was decreased by 19% after 48 h and 27% after 62 h at 37°C, respectively. None of the other aliquots displayed significant changes over time at any temperature. In conclusion, steroids appear to be stable in blood for nearly 3 days at room or refrigeration temperatures before centrifugation; steroids in samples with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid were particularly stable. However, warmer temperatures may negatively affect steroids stored without anti-coagulant, perhaps due to red blood cell metabolism. Thus, under field conditions with no access to cold or freezer temperatures, collection of plasma is a better choice for elephants up to at least 62 h before centrifugation

Influence of season, tourist activities and camp management on body condition, testicular and adrenal steroids, lipid profiles, and metabolic status in captive Asian elephant bulls in Thailand.

We previously found relationships between body condition and physiological function affecting health and welfare of female tourist camp elephants in Thailand, and used that approach to conduct a similar study of bull elephants in the same camps (n = 13). A body condition score (BCS) was done every other month, and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations were measured twice monthly for 1 year. Effects of season, camp management and tourist activity on lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic factors [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] were determined and correlated to measures of body condition, testosterone and FGM. Positive correlations were found between BCS and TG, between FGM and TG, HDL and glucose, and between testosterone and HDL, whereas BCS and testosterone were negatively associated with the G:I. There was a significant positive relationship between FGM and testosterone. Elevated FGM concentrations were associated with altered lipid and metabolic profiles and were higher in winter compared to summer and rainy seasons. Insulin and glucose levels were higher, while the G:I was lowest in the winter season. Strong positive associations were found between TC and HDL, LDL and HDL and glucose, and glucose and insulin. By contrast, negative relationships were found between the G:I and HDL and glucose, and between insulin and G:I. Differences also were found between High and Low tourist season months for FGM, insulin, and G:I. Last, there was notable variation among the camps in measured parameters, which together with tourist season effects suggests camp management may affect physiological function and welfare; some negatively like feeding high calorie treats, others positively, like exercise. Last, compared to females, bull elephants appear to be in better physical health based on normal BCSs, lower insulin levels and higher G:I ratios

Associations among tourist camp management, high and low tourist seasons, and welfare factors in female Asian elephants in Thailand.

This study investigated how camp management and tourist activities affect body condition, adrenocortical function, lipid profiles and metabolic status in female tourist elephants. We compared twice monthly serum insulin, glucose, fructosamine, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations to body condition scores (BCS) at five camps with different management styles (e.g., tourist activities, work type, diet) between the High (November-February) and Low (March-October) tourist seasons. There were significant camp effects on health parameters, with BCS, TC, HDL, insulin and glucose being among the highest, and G:I being the lowest (less heathy) in elephants at an observation camp compared to those at camps where elephants received exercise by providing rides to tourists. Differences between High and Low tourist season months also were found for all measures, except TG and FGM concentrations. Both work time and walking distance were negatively correlated to glucose, fructosamine and insulin, while walking distance was negatively related to FGM concentrations. By contrast, positive associations were found between tourist number and BCS, TG, and insulin, perhaps related to tourists feeding elephants. Quantity of supplementary diet items (e.g., bananas, sugar cane, pumpkin) were positively correlated with FGM concentrations, glucose, fructosamine, and insulin. This study provides evidence that body condition, adrenal activity, metabolic markers, and lipid profiles in captive elephants may be affected by visitor numbers, work activities, and the amount of supplementary foods offered by tourists. Some activities appear to have negative (e.g., feeding), while others (e.g., exercise) may have positive effects on health and welfare. We conclude that camps adopting a more hands-off approach to tourism need to ensure elephants remain healthy by providing environments that encourage activity and rely on more natural diets or foraging