An open ocean record of the Toarcian oceanic anoxic event

Oceanic anoxic events were time intervals in the Mesozoic characterized by widespread distribution of marine organic matter-rich sediments (black shales) and significant perturbations in the global carbon cycle. These perturbations are globally recorded in sediments as carbon isotope excursions irrespective of lithology and depositional environment. During the early Toarcian, black shales were deposited on the epi- and pericontinental shelves of Pangaea, and these sedimentary rocks are associated with a pronounced (ca. 7 ‰) negative (organic) carbon isotope excursion (CIE) which is thought to be the result of a major perturbation in the global carbon cycle. For this reason, the lower Toarcian is thought to represent an oceanic anoxic event (the T-OAE). If the T-OAE was indeed a global event, an isotopic expression of this event should be found beyond the epi- and pericontinental Pangaean localities. To address this issue, the carbon isotope composition of organic matter (δ13Corg of lower Toarcian organic matter-rich cherts from Japan, deposited in the open Panthalassa Ocean, was analysed. The results show the presence of a major (>6 ‰) negative excursion in δ13Corg that, based on radiolarian biostratigraphy, is a correlative of the lower Toarcian negative CIE known from Pangaean epi- and pericontinental strata. A smaller negative excursion in δ13Corg (ca. 2 ‰) is recognized lower in the studied succession. This excursion may, within the current biostratigraphic resolution, represent the excursion recorded in European epicontinental successions close to the Pliensbachian/Toarcian boundary. These results from the open ocean realm suggest, in conjunction with other previously published datasets, that these Early Jurassic carbon cycle perturbations affected the active global reservoirs of the exchangeable carbon cycle (deep marine, shallow marine, atmospheric)

Lithological controls on the deformation mechanisms operating within carbonate-hosted faults during the seismic cycle

A significant proportion of moderate-large earthquakes, plus aftershocks, nucleate within and propagate through upper-crustal carbonate-dominated sequences, where the effects of lithological variations on fault behaviour are poorly understood. The Gubbio fault is an active (1984, Ms = 5.2) normal fault in Italy, hosted in Mesozoic–Cenozoic limestones and interbedded marls. Fault core domains derived from limestone at the studied outcrop are characterised by fractures/hydrofractures and breccias and host a number of localised (<1.5 mm wide) principal slip zones (PSZs). The majority of displacement of up to 230 m is concentrated in these PSZs, which comprise cataclasites, gouges, and calcite veins. Degassing bubbles, ‘quenched’ calcite, and the transformation of smectite to illite, are also observed within PSZs, implying frictional heating and seismic slip. In contrast, marl-rich domains exhibit distributed shear planes bounding a continuous and pervasive foliation, defined by phyllosilicate-rich pressure-solution seams. Microstructures in the seams include folds/kinks of phyllosilicates and pressure shadows around clasts, consistent with aseismic fault creep. A model is proposed for the behaviour of lithologically complex carbonate-hosted faults during the seismic cycle, whereby limestone-dominated fault core domains behave in a predominantly seismic manner, whereas phyllosilicate-rich domains behave in a predominantly aseismic manner

A regional ocean circulation model for the mid-Cretaceous North Atlantic Basin: implications for black shale formation

High concentrations of organic matter accumulated in marine sediments during Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs) in the Cretaceous. Model studies examining these events invariably make use of global ocean circulation models. In this study, a regional model for the North Atlantic Basin during OAE2 at the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary has been developed. A first order check of the results has been performed by comparison with the results of a recent global Cenomanian CCSM3 run, from which boundary and initial conditions were obtained. The regional model is able to maintain tracer patterns and to produce velocity patterns similar to the global model. The sensitivity of the basin tracer and circulation patterns to changes in the geometry of the connections with the global ocean is examined with three experiments with different bathymetries near the sponges. Different geometries turn out to have little effect on tracer distribution, but do affect circulation and upwelling patterns. The regional model is also used to test the hypothesis that ocean circulation may have been behind the deposition of black shales during OAEs. Three scenarios are tested which are thought to represent pre-OAE, OAE and post-OAE situations. Model results confirm that Pacific intermediate inflow together with coastal upwelling could have enhanced primary production during OAE2. A low sea level in the pre-OAE scenario could have inhibited large scale black shale formation, as could have the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Seaway in the post-OAE scenario

Organic geochemistry of the early Toarcian oceanic anoxic event in Hawsker Bottoms, Yorkshire, England

A comprehensive organic geochemical investigation of the Hawsker Bottoms outcrop section in Yorkshire, England has provided new insights about environmental conditions leading into and during the Toarcian oceanic anoxic event (T-OAE; ~183 Ma). Rock-Eval and molecular analyses demonstrate that the section is uniformly within the early oil window. Hydrogen index (HI), organic petrography, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) distributions, and tricyclic terpane ratios mark a shift to a lower relative abundance of terrigenous organic matter supplied to the sampling locality during the onset of the T-OAE and across a lithological transition. Unlike other ancient intervals of anoxia and extinction, biomarker indices of planktonic community structure do not display major changes or anomalous values. Depositional environment and redox indicators support a shift towards more reducing conditions in the sediment porewaters and the development of a seasonally stratified water column during the T-OAE. In addition to carotenoid biomarkers for green sulfur bacteria (GSB), we report the first occurrence of okenane, a marker of purple sulfur bacteria (PSB), in marine samples younger than ~1.64 Ga. Based on modern observations, a planktonic source of okenane's precursor, okenone, would require extremely shallow photic zone euxinia (PZE) and a highly restricted depositional environment. However, due to coastal vertical mixing, the lack of planktonic okenone production in modern marine sulfidic environments, and building evidence of okenone production in mat-dwelling Chromatiaceae, we propose a sedimentary source of okenone as an alternative. Lastly, we report the first parallel compound-specific δ[superscript 13]C record in marine- and terrestrial-derived biomarkers across the T-OAE. The δ[superscript 13]C records of short-chain n-alkanes, acyclic isoprenoids, and long-chain n -alkanes all encode negative carbon isotope excursions (CIEs), and together, they support an injection of isotopically light carbon that impacted both the atmospheric and marine carbon reservoirs. To date, molecular δ[superscript 13]C records of the T-OAE display a negative CIE that is smaller in magnitude compared to the bulk organic δ[superscript 13]C excursion. Although multiple mechanisms could explain this observation, our molecular, petrographic, and Rock-Eval data suggest that variable mixing of terrigenous and marine organic matter is an important factor affecting the bulk organic δ[superscript 13]C records of the T-OAE.NASA Astrobiology InstituteExobiology Program (U.S.)National Science Foundation (U.S.). Graduate Research Fellowshi

The mid-Cretaceous North Atlantic nutrient trap: Black shales and OAEs

Organic-rich sediments are the salient marine sedimentation product in the mid-Cretaceous of the ocean basins formed in the Mesozoic. Oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) are discrete and particularly organic-rich intervals within these mid-Cretaceous organic-rich sequences and are defined by pronounced carbon isotope excursions. Marine productivity during OAEs appears to have been enhanced by the increased availability of biolimiting nutrients in seawater due to hydrothermal alteration of submarine basalts in the Pacific and proto-Indian oceans. The exact mechanisms behind the deposition of organic-rich sediments in the mid-Cretaceous are still a matter of discussion, but a hypothesis which is often put forward is that their deposition was a consequence of the coupling of a particular paleogeography with changes in ocean circulation and nutrient supply. In this study, we used a global coupled climate model to investigate oceanic processes that affect the interbasinal exchange of nutrients as well as their spatial distribution and bioavailability. We conclude that the mid-Cretaceous North Atlantic was a nutrient trap as a consequence of an estuarine circulation with respect to the Pacific. Organic-rich sediments in the North Atlantic were deposited below regions of intense upwelling. We suggest that enhanced productivity during OAEs was a consequence of upwelling of Pacific-derived nutrient-rich seawater associated with submarine igneous events

Sandy contourite drift in the late Miocene Rifian Corridor (Morocco):Reconstruction of depositional environments in a foreland-basin seaway

The Rifian Corridor was a seaway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea during the late Miocene. The seaway progressively closed, leading to the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the Mediterranean Sea. Despite the key palaeogeographic importance of the Rifian Corridor, patterns of sediment transport within the seaway have not been thoroughly studied. In this study, we investigated the upper Miocene sedimentation and bottom current pathways in the South Rifian Corridor. The planktic and benthic foraminifera of the upper Tortonian and lower Messinian successions allow us to constrain the age and palaeo-environment of deposition. Encased in silty marls deposited at 150–300 m depth, there are (i) 5 to 50 m thick, mainly clastic sandstone bodies with unidirectional cross-bedding; and (ii) 50 cm thick, mainly clastic, tabular sandstone beds with bioturbation, mottled silt, lack of clear base or top, and bi-gradational sequences. Furthermore, seismic facies representing elongated mounded drifts and associated moat are present at the western mouth of the seaway. We interpret these facies as contourites: the products of a westward sedimentary drift in the South Rifian Corridor. The contourites are found only on the northern margin of the seaway, thus suggesting a geostrophic current flowing westward along slope and then northward. This geostrophic current may have been modulated by tides. By comparing these fossil examples with the modern Gulf of Cadiz, we interpret these current-dominated deposits as evidence of late Miocene Mediterranean overflow into the Atlantic Ocean, through the Rifian Corridor. This overflow may have affected late Miocene ocean circulation and climate, and the overflow deposits may represent one of the first examples of mainly clastic contourites exposed on land

Organic matter-rich shale depositional environments

Black shales are mixtures of terrigenous, biogenous, and hydrogenous sediment in which organic matter constitutes at least 0.5% of the material. Shales are the end product of the processes that control the production, erosion, transport, deposition, and diagenesis of mud. Although salt flocculation is an important mechanism, particularly in environments where water masses of different salinities mix, biogenic aggregation is probably the most important process controlling the behavior of mud in paralic and shallow marine environments. It is unsurprising that intervals of relatively widespread black shale deposition should coincide with eustatic highstands. Most ancient black shales appear to have been deposited in shallow marine epicontinental environments for which there are no modern analogs. Mud-dominated facies are the most abundant of all ancient shallow marine deposits. Black shales may be deposited in a wide range of sedimentary environments from the bottom of lakes to the abyssal plains of the ocean

More gaps than shale: erosion of mud and its effect on preserved geochemical and palaeobiological signals

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Orbitally forced sedimentary rhythms in the stratigraphic record: is there room for tidal forcing?

The imprint of orbital cycles, which result from the varying eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit and changes in the orientation of its axis, have been recognised throughout the Phanerozoic rock record. Variations in insolation and their effect on climate are generally considered to be the sole transfer mechanism between the orbital variables and cyclic sedimentary successions. Common oceanographic principles, however, show that the ocean tide also responds to variations in the orbital parameters. The ocean tide has not yet been considered to be a valid, additional transfer mechanism for the orbital variations. In geological studies of Milankovitch cycles in sedimentary successions the insolation paradigm offers satisfying explanations, and the role of long-term variations of the ocean tide has not yet been appreciated. Variations in the ocean tide, related to changing eccentricity (at present 0·0165, theoretical maximum 0·0728), affect a variety of oceanographic and sedimentary processes. In addition to the widely accepted paradigm of orbitally forced insolation changes, the tidal transfer of orbital signals may explain certain less well-understood aspects of orbitally induced cycles in the stratigraphic record related to ocean mixing, organic productivity, and tidal processes in shallow seas and deep water. Variations of the ocean tide in relation to the 18·6 year lunar nodal cycle, which has no insolation counterpart by which they may be obscured, indeed show that these relatively small variations can produce significant effects in sedimentary environments that are sensitive to variations in the strength of the ocean tide. In analogy with the 18·6 year lunar nodal cycle, orbital variations of the tide on Milankovitch time scales are likely to have affected sedimentary systems in the past