Cost Minimization for Coal Conversion Pollution Control: A Mixed Integer Programming Model

A mixed integer program was structured to identify the least cost combination of recycling and treatment alternatives that can be used to control the liquid, solid, and gas waste streams produced from a 750-megawatt coat fired steam electric power plant. The model compared methods of liquid stream recycle and waste discharge treatment to meet given air and water quality standards. The model was then used to study the effects on the optimal solution of changes in capital, operation and maintenance, and energy and water costs. In addition, the effects on optimum system design of changes in particulate and sulfur oxide emission standards and stream discharge standards were evaluated. Nonlinear cost functions for system components were structured with binary integer variables to define the ordinate intercept and with continuous variables to define the slopes of total cost curve segments. The binary and continuous variables were associated with each other in pairs to approximate nonlinear total cost functions of alternative pollution control units. The optimal plant design was sensitive to increases in capital, operation and maintenance, and energy costs as well as air emission standard changes. The model indentified the optimal treatment until alternatives and their sizes when segments of the total costs and environmental standards were changed. The optimal solutions always indentified water recycle, rather than stream discharge, as the optimal production strategy

Mapping Urban aerosolized fungi: Predicting spatial and temporal indoor concentrations

© 2018, Society for Human Ecology. All rights reserved. The prediction of bioaerosols, specifically airborne fungi, can be achieved using various mapping techniques, potentially enabling the determination of ambient indoor concentrations within environments where people spend most of their time. The concentration and composition of indoor air pollutants are determined by a multitude of variables, with building ventilation type being the most predominant factor in most scenarios. A predictive statistical model-based methodology for mapping airborne fungi was developed utilizing satellite-based technology. Mapping was carried out for total aerosolized fungal spores and the diversity of aerosolized fungi in Sydney, Australia, over four seasons. Corresponding data for a range of environmental parameters known to influence airborne fungi were also used, notably green space density, land cover, altitude, meteorological variables, and other locally determined factors. Statistical models previously developed from the combined meteorological and environmental variable data were used to establish spatiotemporal models for airborne fungi across the study area for each season. Results showed that the models produced reasonable predictions of monitored aeromycota concentrations; although, the accuracy of these predictions for individual survey periods was variable. Using known indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios of airborne fungi for the area, the prevalence and concentrations of indoor aeromycota were modeled for buildings with both natural and mechanical ventilation. As accurate manual assessment of the aeromycota is labor, time, and cost intensive, the current findings should assist in the prediction of fungal aerosols in both urban and indoor environments. Additionally, understanding the indoor microbiome has great importance for the health and well-being of the occupants concerned

A Field Technique Measuring Virus Decay and Potential Aerosol Hazard from Wastewater Sprinkler Irrigation

The increased use of domestic wastewater for irrigation purposes has stimulated a growing practice of sprinkler irrigating from oxidation ponds and other domestic wastewaters. Aerosols generated from these sprinkler irrigation systems may contain potentially hazardous pathogens. Subsequently, the aerosols can contain infective viruses which can be carried through the air to surrounding populations. Thus, a public health hazard can be created by sprinkler irrigating domestic wastewater. This study is an investigation of a means by which the virus decay rate of viruses in aerosols and the potentials hazard of sprinkler irrigation aerosol clouds may be examined. A means of injection of a human and animal virus stimulant, MS-2 bacteriophage, is described. In addition, the factors which are known to effect the survival of viruses in aerosols are discussed. The ambient air factors that are known to effect virus survival and which are discussed include relative humidity, air temperature, solar radiation, and aerosol age. The suspending fluid factors that are known to effect virus survival and which are discussed include dissolved inorganic salt contact, dissolved organic content, filterable solids and pH. The decay rate of the aerosolized MS-2 was measured with an all-glass impinger (AGI-30) when the wind velocity and distance of the sampler from the sprinkler system, and the initial and final concentrations of aerosolized MS-2 virus were known. The aerosol hazard of a domestic wastewater sprinkler irrigation system is defined in terms of the likelihood of infective aerosol particles to be inhaled and penetrate the human lung. Thus, the aerosol hazard is a function of aerosol particle size. The aerosol particle size distribution of the infective aerosol cloud was measured wit the Andersen sampler. A high and homogeneous concentration of the virus in the wastewater was insured by using pressure differentials in the sprinkler irrigation delivery line. By injecting the MS-2 virus into the line at a constant rate along with a tracer, Bacillus subtilus var niger (Bacillus globigii) spores, the decay rate of the virus during airborne exposure to environmental factors could be determined. The decay rate was determined assuming the environmental factors had no affect on the concentration of the tracer. It was proposed that the environmental engineer, after knowing the virus decay rates under varying environmental conditions, can define buffer zones which would be required around sprinkler irrigation sites. The buffer zone would reduce the possibility of contaminating humans by prohibiting access. The usefulness of the filed technique was demonstrated and the MS-2 was found to undergo a 33.3 percent decay per minute in the dark (no solar radiation) at 33 percent relative humidity, 70.6 percent dissolved organic material, 29.4 percent dissolved inorganic salts, 30.1 mg/1 filterable solids, and 17 degree C air temperature. The aerosol cloud resulting from the spray irrigation process appeared potentially hazardous because the Andersen sampler collected 84.2 percent of the virus infective droplets in the size range that could be inhaled

A competitive model for determining air pollution in urban areas: The potential for vegetation for air pollution mitigation

Over the past few decades, the relationship between air pollution and urban forestry has been receiving increasing consideration as global cities have undergone rapid transformation. Urbanisation has resulted in population densification and increased air pollution due to the increased anthropogenic sources. Consequently, urban forestry has been proposed as one of the solutions as it has the potential to mitigate and ameliorate urban air pollution. This research investigated the spatial extent of four air pollutant concentrations and urban forestry to determine the relationship between air pollution concentrations and urban forestry across Sydney, Australia. Ambient air pollutant concentrations and other variables such as land cover, population density, dwelling density, were combined to create a Land Use Regression (LUR) model to develop predictive models for urban CO, NO₂, SO₂, and PM₁₀ concentrations. Differences in pollutant concentrations were assessed with ArcGIS and analysis of covariance across various land cover types; active vegetation, non-active vegetation and bare ground. The relative influence of predictor variables for pollutant concentrations were determined using a stepwise multiple linear regression. An inverse relationship between urban forestry and air pollution was observed and quantified in the land cover model. Furthermore, tree canopy cover was negatively correlated with all four air pollutants and urban indicators of pollution including dwelling density, population density and traffic count was positively correlated with the pollutants. This LUR model established a statistically significant spatial relationship between urban forestry and air pollution mitigation and amelioration. These findings confirm urban forestry’s capabilities to mitigate and ameliorate air pollution on a city-wide scale. Furthermore, these findings could be incorporated in to or used to develop urban planning and greening policies whilst promoting urban forestry uptake in Sydney

Grey to Green Transition: mapping a way forward for green walls

Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-3KUUGyUwAg Urbanisation and densification continue to present a unique set of environmental challenges, as declining urban green spaces are intrinsically linked with population growth, urban sprawl and development. Consequently, the loss of green space also comes with increased air pollution, elevated levels of noise pollution, loss of biodiversity and the increase in urban heat island effect. Further, space limitations are characteristically an issue faced in urban areas as green space is often in competition with other land uses or socioeconomic priorities. Despite these issues, many global cities aim to achieve sustainability targets or green goals in the near future. For example, the City of Sydney’s current goal is to have 40% green cover by 2050, while the cities of Melbourne and Brisbane aim to achieve their 40% green cover targets by 2040 and 2031 respectively. But, it is unknown if it can be achieved with the cities’ current structures and designs. Increasingly, green walls (GWs) have been considered an adaptive environmental solution to space-limited urban areas while potentially improving the sustainability and regreening of cities. Therefore, evaluation methods are required to allow for appraisal to see if existing walls can be retrofitted with GWs. Furthermore, there is a lack of feasibility studies aimed at quantifying the potential for retrofit suitability of GWs across large urban areas or cities. This study developed a preliminary evaluation tool for GW suitability in high density urban areas. Using the tool, the quantity of walls across five major Australian cities that could potentially incorporate GWs was determined. Each wall was analysed using a set of criteria that assessed and ranked the wall based on its suitability. Interestingly, major cities across Australia varied in terms of greening potential with the cities of Sydney and Brisbane recording the greatest proportional length of walls suitable for GW implementation, with approximately 34%. Comparatively, the cities of Perth and Adelaide had the least greening potential, with less than 5% for each city, as many walls were excluded due to the prevalence of glazed facades and heritage buildings. Furthermore, Australian cities had very few GWs present with less than 1% of surveyed walls already greened. These results indicate that cities like Sydney and Brisbane could realistically achieve their targets if they incorporated urban forestry vertically. Though, Perth and Adelaide may need to consider other greening options such as green roofs. These results also highlight the importance of green walls and green roofs as a solution to the space-constrained areas that are characteristic of our urban cityscapes and they offer a green alternative to urban parklands and forestry that may not be viable in the future. Additionally, the accessibility of this tool will allow interested individuals, communities and organisations to assess the retrofit suitability of an area for GW implementation with minimal requirements in terms of training or resources, and could be applied globally. Subsequently, the outcomes of this study emphasised the need for more governmental support and incentives to encourage GW uptake, and this tool could play a pivotal role in the expansion of green infrastructure and urban forestry

Testing the single-pass VOC removal efficiency of an active green wall using methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)

© 2017, The Author(s). In recent years, research into the efficacy of indoor air biofiltration mechanisms, notably living green walls, has become more prevalent. Whilst green walls are often utilised within the built environment for their biophilic effects, there is little evidence demonstrating the efficacy of active green wall biofiltration for the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at concentrations found within an interior environment. The current work describes a novel approach to quantifying the VOC removal effectiveness by an active living green wall, which uses a mechanical system to force air through the substrate and plant foliage. After developing a single-pass efficiency protocol to understand the immediate effects of the system, the active green wall was installed into a 30-m3 chamber representative of a single room and presented with the contaminant 2-butanone (methyl ethyl ketone; MEK), a VOC commonly found in interior environments through its use in textile and plastic manufacture. Chamber inlet levels of MEK remained steady at 33.91 ± 0.541 ppbv. Utilising a forced-air system to draw the contaminated air through a green wall based on a soil-less growing medium containing activated carbon, the combined effects of substrate media and botanical component within the biofiltration system showed statistically significant VOC reduction, averaging 57% single-pass removal efficiency over multiple test procedures. These results indicate a high level of VOC removal efficiency for the active green wall biofilter tested and provide evidence that active biofiltration may aid in reducing exposure to VOCs in the indoor environment

Engaging the community to understand the public’s perception, willingness to pay, and barriers to vertical greening

Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=On_L8z9SgiU The rapid urbanisation and resulting densification of cities negatively affect their residents, with impacts ranging from reduced human health to declining biodiversity. To overcome these adversities, urban populations must take steps towards mitigating these impacts. Natural environments and planted landscapes are key components missing from many urban centres. An often suggested strategy to improve the urban environmental quality is to increase the greenness of a city through the implementation of green infrastructure, such as green walls. Green walls are gaining in popularity as they address these concerns, are spatially efficient, and provide a range of additional benefits. Currently, barriers impede the uptake of green walls across urban regions, including those in Australia. In an effort to capture inclusive public participation, this study engaged the community to understand the general public’s awareness, experience, and perception of green walls, barriers to implementation, and willingness to pay for local green wall development. This was achieved by distributing a nationwide survey administered through every local government in Australia. The responses were grouped by the demographic characteristics of the respondents to identify the attitudes of different groups within Australian society. The results revealed a consensus that greener cities are considered to be a worthwhile investment. The majority of participants (72%) viewed green walls positively despite only 17% of them spending time near green walls. This stemmed from the perceived benefits green walls provide and the emotional and restorative responses that they evoke. The most important perceived benefit was improved air quality, followed by increased aesthetics and natural beauty, and a reduction in the urban heat island effect. The emotional responses most frequently reported included feeling more at peace and a stronger sense of community pride and belonging. These varied significantly across gender, age, income and geographic region. The majority of participants (71%) reported that having a green wall at their workplace, residence or place of study would improve their quality of life. The majority of participants were also were willing to pay for local green wall development. However, the amount participants were willing to invest differed with income, with those earning a median to high income more willing to invest at the highest threshold, and those in the highest income bracket were the least likely to invest. Two major barriers to local green wall development were identified, which highlighted potential areas of improvement. The first being the provision of more information such as educational and technical resources (guidance, workshops, technical support), while the second was fiscal (rebates, funding, incentives). The highest ranked considerations for green wall implement included ease of operation and structural durability, and maintenance. However, these varied substantially across gender, age, income and geographic region. This study provides evidence that Australians have a desire to develop green walls in their community and understand their benefits. However, barriers to implementation must be addressed through greater educational, technical and fiscal support from all levels of governments or private industry to provide the necessary resources. By addressing these issues, a greener Australia for all may be possible

Sequential Lonsdaleite to Diamond Formation in Ureilite Meteorites via In Situ Chemical Fluid/Vapor Deposition.

Ureilite meteorites are arguably our only large suite of samples from the mantle of a dwarf planet and typically contain greater abundances of diamond than any known rock. Some also contain lonsdaleite, which may be harder than diamond. Here, we use electron microscopy to map the relative distribution of coexisting lonsdaleite, diamond, and graphite in ureilites. These maps show that lonsdaleite tends to occur as polycrystalline grains, sometimes with distinctive fold morphologies, partially replaced by diamond + graphite in rims and cross-cutting veins. These observations provide strong evidence for how the carbon phases formed in ureilites, which, despite much conjecture and seemingly conflicting observations, has not been resolved. We suggest that lonsdaleite formed by pseudomorphic replacement of primary graphite shapes, facilitated by a supercritical C-H-O-S fluid during rapid decompression and cooling. Diamond + graphite formed after lonsdaleite via ongoing reaction with C-H-O-S gas. This graphite > lonsdaleite > diamond + graphite formation process is akin to industrial chemical vapor deposition but operates at higher pressure (∼1-100 bar) and provides a pathway toward manufacture of shaped lonsdaleite for industrial application. It also provides a unique model for ureilites that can reconcile all conflicting observations relating to diamond formation

Energy Development vs Water Quality in the Upper Colorado and Upper Missouri River Basins

This report examines the relationship between energy development and water quality in the Upper Colorado and Upper Missouri River Basins. The location and type of energy resources and present and possible future developments are identified relative to the water resource systems. Impacts from energy developments are discussed in terms of the various pollutants generated by energy extraction and processing activities, and the pollution transport mechanisms and pathways by which they can enter surface and groundwater. The report discusses the implications for energy development of the water quality aspects of legislative requirements and regulations. These include the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Toxic Substances Control Act. Many of the potential water pollution problems associated with energy development will occur through the transport of pollutants from air pollution and solid waste disposal. The consumptive use of all water withdrawn for energy processing as a pollution control measure raises three important issues--each of which represents a potential conflict between energy developers' compliance with the legislation and western water law: (1) junior rights and water transfer, (2) the beneficial use question, and (3) the reasonable use measure of certain water quality practices