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    Protective Effects of Betaine against Paraquat-Induced Oxidative Lung Injury in Rats

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ•์‚ฌ)--์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› :์•ฝํ•™๋Œ€ํ•™ ์•ฝํ•™๊ณผ,2019. 8. ์ด๋ณ‘ํ›ˆ.Betaine ์€ ์ˆ˜์šฉ์„ฑ ๋ฌผ์งˆ๋กœ์„œ ๊ฐ„์งˆํ™˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์น˜๋ฃŒ์•ฝ๋ฌผ๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์‹คํ—˜์ ์œผ๋กœ๋„ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ๋…์„ฑ๋ฌผ์งˆ๋กœ ์œ ๋ฐœ์‹œํ‚จ ๊ฐ„์†์ƒ ๋ชจ๋ธ์—์„œ ๋ณดํ˜ธํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋‚˜ ๊ฐ„ ์ด์™ธ์˜ ์žฅ๊ธฐ์—์„œ๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋œ ๋ฐ”๊ฐ€ ๊ฑฐ์˜ ์—†๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ์ด์œ ๋Š” betaine ์„ ๋Œ€์‚ฌํ•˜๋Š” betaine homocysteine methyl transferase (BHMT) ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ„ ์ด์™ธ์˜ ์žฅ๊ธฐ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ํ™œ์„ฑ์ด ๊ฐ„์— ๋น„ํ•˜์—ฌ ํ˜„์ €ํžˆ ๋‚ฎ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ ›ํŠธ์— paraquat ์„ ํˆฌ์—ฌํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ ์‚ฐํ™”์  ์ŠคํŠธ๋ ˆ์Šค๋กœ ์œ ๋„๋œ ํ์„ฌ์œ ํ™” ๋ชจ๋ธ์—์„œ betaine ์˜ ๋ณดํ˜ธํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. Paraquat ๋ฅผ ํˆฌ์—ฌํ•˜๊ธฐ 2์ฃผ ์ „๋ถ€ํ„ฐ betaine ์„ ์Œ์šฉ์ˆ˜์— 1 % ์˜ ๋†๋„๋กœ ํฌ์„ํ•˜์—ฌ ํˆฌ์—ฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. Paraquat ๋Š” 0.3 mg/500 ฮผl/kg ์˜ ๋†๋„๋กœ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์ง€๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ํ์— ์ง์ ‘ ์ฃผ์ž…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ชธ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ ๋Œ€๋น„ ํ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ์˜ ๋น„์œจ์€ ์—ผ์ฆ์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(4์ผ)์—์„œ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์„ฌ์œ ํ™”์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(14์ผ)์—์„œ ์„ฌ์œ ํ™” ์ง€ํ‘œ์ธ 4-hydroxyproline ๊ณผ TGF-ฮฒ1 ์€ paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•œ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๊ฐ€ betaine ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ์˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๊ณ , ์กฐ์ง ์—ผ์ƒ‰์„ ํ†ตํ•ด์„œ ํ™•์ธํ•œ ์„ฌ์œ ํ™” ๋ณ‘๋ณ€๋„ ์™„ํ™”๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์—ผ์ฆ์ง€ํ‘œ์ธ serum TNF-ฮฑ, tissue TNF-ฮฑ, serum IL-1ฮฒ๋ฅผ ์ธก์ •ํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ์—ผ์ฆ์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(4์ผ)์—์„œ paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•œ tissue TNF-ฮฑ ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๊ฐ€ betaine ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๊ฐ์†Œํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์—ผ์ฆ์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(4์ผ)๊ณผ ์„ฌ์œ ํ™”์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(14์ผ)์—์„œ comet assay ์„ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•œ ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ DNA ์†์ƒ์ด ๊ด€์ฐฐ๋˜์—ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, HO-1, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  iNOS ์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ์‚ฐํ™”์  ์†์ƒ์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•จ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ TOSC assay๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ hydroxyl radical, peroxyl radical ๊ณผ peroxyl nitrite ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ œ๊ฑฐ๋Šฅ ์—ญ์‹œ paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ์˜์ ์ธ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋ฅผ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์‚ฐํ™”์  ์ŠคํŠธ๋ž˜์Šค ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋Š” ๋ชจ๋‘ betaine ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•˜์—ฌ ์™„ํ™”๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋ณดํ˜ธํšจ๊ณผ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์›์ธ์„ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ๊ณผ์ •์„ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์„ฌ์œ ํ™”์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(14์ผ)์—์„œ betaine ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•œ methionine ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๊ฐ€ ํ™•์ธ๋˜์—ˆ๊ณ , methionine adenosyl -transferase II (MATII) ์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„์€ paraquat ์™€ betaine ์˜ ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๊ธ‰๊ฒฉํ•œ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) ์€ betaine ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ์˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ , SAM ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ›๋Š” polyamine ์—ญ์‹œ paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•œ ๊ฐ์†Œ๊ฐ€ betaine ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ์˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. SAH ๋Š” ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์—†์—ˆ์œผ๋‚˜ homocysteine ์€ paraquat ์™€ betaine ๋ณ‘์šฉํˆฌ์—ฌ๊ตฐ ์—์„œ ์œ ์˜์ ์ธ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•œ cysteine dioxygenase (CDO) ์™€ glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) ์˜ ๊ฐ์†Œ์™€ ํ•จ๊ป˜ cysteine ์€ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ , betaine ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•œ GCLC ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋Š” cysteine ์„ ๊ฐ์†Œ์‹œํ‚ค๊ณ  ํ™˜์›๋œ GSH ์„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œ์ผฐ๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ, ์—ผ์ฆ์ง„ํ–‰๊ตฌ๊ฐ„(4์ผ)์—์„œ๋Š” paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด SAM, polyamine, SAH, homocysteine, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  cysteine ์ด paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ์˜์ ์ธ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋ฅผ ๋ณด์˜€์ง€๋งŒ, betaine ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•œ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Š” ๋ณด์ด์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ์„ ํ†ตํ•œ ๋ณดํ˜ธ๊ธฐ์ „์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์คฌ๊ณ , betaine ์ด ๊ฐ„ ์ด์™ธ์˜ ์žฅ๊ธฐ์ธ ํ์—์„œ๋„ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ณดํ˜ธ๊ธฐ์ „ ์กฐ์ ˆ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํ์†์ƒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ์•ฝ๋ฆฌํ•™์  ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ–๋Š”๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ณด๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค.Betaine is a methyl donor used in remethylation of homocysteine to methionine in a metabolic reaction catalyzed by betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase in the liver. However, our recent study suggests that the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids in extrahepatic organs may also be influenced by betaine, probably via an increase in methionine uptake from blood. In this study we investigated the effect of betaine against paraquat (PQ)-induced pulmonary injury. Male rats received betaine from 2 wk prior to an intratracheal instillation of PQ (0.3 mg/500 ฮผl/kg). In 2 wk after PQ instillation, there were severe inflammatory and fibrotic lesions accompanied with accumulation of 4-hydroxyproline in the lung, which were prevented effectively by betaine supplementation. Betaine intake also suppressed PQ-induced expression of HO-1 and iNOS in lung, oxidative DNA damage in lymphocytes, and elevation of TGF-ฮฒ1 in serum. PQ instillation increased cysteine, but decreased glutathione levels, however, betaine supplementation inhibited cysteine accumulation and increased glutathione synthesis. Putrescine, spermidine, and spermine levels were decreased by PQ instillation, but elevated significantly in the rats supplemented with betaine. The present results suggest that betaine may prevent oxidative lung injury by modulating the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids despite the lack of betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase in the lung.๊ตญ๋ฌธ ์ดˆ๋ก 1 ๋ชฉ ์ฐจ 3 List of Figures and Tables 7 List of Abbreviations 11 ์„œ ๋ก  13 1. ํ์„ฌ์œ ํ™” 14 1.1. Paraquat 16 2. ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ 19 3. Betaine 23 3.1. ์ƒ๋ฆฌ์ž‘์šฉ 26 3.2. ๋Œ€์‚ฌ 28 4. Glutathione 29 4.1. Glutathione ์˜ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ 30 4.2. Glutathione ์˜ ํ•ฉ์„ฑ 31 5. Polyamine 33 5.1. Polyamine ์˜ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ 34 ์‹คํ—˜์žฌ๋ฃŒ ๋ฐ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ• 38 1. ์‹คํ—˜์žฌ๋ฃŒ 38 1.1. ์‹œ์•ฝ ๋ฐ ํ™”ํ•™๋ฌผ์งˆ 38 1.2. ํ•ญ์ฒด 39 2. ๋™๋ฌผ์‹คํ—˜๋ชจ๋ธ 40 3. ํ˜ˆ์•ก ๋ฐ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ๋ถ„ํš ๋ถ„๋ฆฌ 41 3.1. ํ˜ˆ์žฅ ๋ฐ ํ˜ˆ์ฒญ์˜ ๋ถ„๋ฆฌ 41 3.2. ํ์˜ ์‹คํ—˜ ๊ฒ€์ฒด ์ค€๋น„ 41 4. ํ์†์ƒ ๊ด€๋ จ์ง€ํ‘œ ์ธก์ • 42 4.1. 4-hydroxyproline ์˜ ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 42 4.2. Proinflammatory cytokine ์˜ ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 43 4.2.1. Serum cytokine (IL-1ฮฒ, TNF-ฮฑ, TGF-ฮฒ 1) ์˜ ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 43 4.2.2. Tissue TNF-ฮฑ ์˜ ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 43 4.3. ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ ์‚ฐํ™”์  DNA ์†์ƒ ์ธก์ • 44 4.3.1. ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ ๋ถ„๋ฆฌ 44 4.3.2. Comet Assay 44 4.4. Total Oxyradical Scavenging Capacity (TOSC) assay 45 4.5. Histopathological examination 46 5. ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ์ฒด์˜ ์ธก์ • 47 5.1. GSH ๋ฐ GSSG ์ธก์ • 47 5.2. Cysteine ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 47 5.3. SAM ๋ฐ SAH ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 48 5.4. Methionine, hypotaurine, taurine, ornithine ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 48 5.5. Homocysteine ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 49 5.6. Polyamines ํ•จ๋Ÿ‰ ์ธก์ • 50 6. ๋‹จ๋ฐฑ์งˆ ๋ฐœํ˜„ ์ธก์ • 51 ๊ฒฐ ๊ณผ 53 Part I. ๋žซํŠธ์˜ ํ์—์„œ ์‹œ๊ฐ„๋Œ€๋ณ„ paraquat ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 53 1. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ๋กœ ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ์˜ ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ ๋ณ€ํ™” 54 2. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ๋กœ ์œ ๋ฐœ์‹œํ‚จ ํ ๋ณ‘๋ณ€ ๋ฐ ์„ฌ์œ ํ™” ๋ณ€ํ™” 58 3. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ๋กœ ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ์‚ฐํ™”์  ์ŠคํŠธ๋ž˜์Šค ๋ณ€ํ™” 61 4. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ์˜ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ ๋ฌผ์งˆ ๋†๋„ ๋ณ€ํ™” 63 5. Paraquat ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ๋งค๊ฐœํ•˜๋Š” ํšจ์†Œ ๋ณ€ํ™” 66 Part II. Paraquat ์œผ๋กœ ์œ ๋ฐœ์‹œํ‚จ ํ์†์ƒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ํšจ๊ณผ 68 1. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 4 ์ผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋„๋œ ๋ชธ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ์™€ ํ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ํšจ๊ณผ 69 2. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 2 ์ฃผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋„๋œ ๋ชธ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ์™€ ํ๋ฌด๊ฒŒ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ํšจ๊ณผ 73 3. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 4 ์ผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ๋ณ‘๋ณ€ ๋ฐ ์„ฌ์œ ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 77 4. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 2 ์ฃผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ๋ณ‘๋ณ€ ๋ฐ ์„ฌ์œ ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 82 5. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 4 ์ผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ์—ผ์ฆ๋ฐ˜์‘์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 88 6. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 2 ์ฃผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ์—ผ์ฆ๋ฐ˜์‘์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 92 7. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 4 ์ผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ์‚ฐํ™”์  ์ŠคํŠธ๋ž˜์Šค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 96 8. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 2 ์ฃผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ์‚ฐํ™”์  ์ŠคํŠธ๋ž˜์Šค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 100 9. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 4 ์ผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ ๋ฌผ ์งˆ ๋†๋„ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 104 10. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 2 ์ฃผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ ๋ฌผ ์งˆ ๋†๋„ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 107 11. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 4 ์ผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ๋งค ๊ฐœํ•˜๋Š” ํšจ์†Œ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 110 12. Paraquat ํˆฌ์—ฌ 2 ์ฃผ ํ›„, ์œ ๋ฐœ๋œ ํ™ฉํ•จ์œ  ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ๋Œ€์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ๋งค ๊ฐœํ•˜๋Š” ํšจ์†Œ ๋ณ€ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ betaine ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ 112 ๊ณ  ์ฐฐ 114 ๊ฒฐ ๋ก  131 ์ฐธ๊ณ  ๋ฌธํ—Œ 133 Abstract 164Docto
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