Integrating Biological and Human Diversity in Natural Capital Accounts for Marine Biodiversity Conservation and Human well-being

Natural capital (NC) accounts measure and value the benefits that ecosystems provide to humans. Marine biodiversity supports human well-being directly by providing a source of food (e.g. wild fish), and indirectly by providing employment (e.g. fisheries, and tourism) and recreation (e.g. diving). The inclusion of the marine environment in NC accounting is relatively new. Central to the NC framework, biodiversity is one of the most challenging aspects to account for. Here, we consider the potential for marine biodiversity to be included in NC accounts, and explain why this is in line with current policy directions towards achieving sustainability and well-being. We present a set of potential indicators that could be used to assess ecosystem extent and ecosystem condition through their biodiversity, and inform policies aimed to improve sustainability and human well-being. We conclude that including biological indicators in NC accounts will help to consider marine biodiversity conservation and economic activities in blue spaces as complementary components of well-being. NC accounts can facilitate decision-making by showing, in few interconnected tables, trends in the provision of biodiversity in a specific area and for specific ecosystems. This makes potential trade-offs between ecosystems, ecosystem services, and economic activities more apparent

Developing ecosystem accounts for the marine and coastal environment: Limitations, opportunities and lessons learned from the United Kingdom experience.

The marine and coastal environment provides crucial ecosystem services to sustain human activities and wellbeing. Advancing measurement frameworks to record the contribution of marine and coastal ecosystems to national wealth and economies and assess the sustainability of their use is therefore paramount. The recently proposed Ocean Accounting Framework outlined within the System of Environmental Economic Accounting represents a decisive step in this direction and provides a foundation for developing an integrated and standardised set of ecosystem accounts to support decision making and use of the seas. However, the ecological and socio-economic complexities of marine and coastal systems pose several challenges in compiling ecosystem accounts. This paper aims to discuss lessons learned, limitations and opportunities based on experience of developing an initial set of marine and coastal accounts for the United Kingdom. The paper reviews and addresses the challenges encountered and offers potential solutions for improving the measurement of marine and coastal ecosystems within accounting frameworks

Could a mix of short- and long-term policies be the solution to tackle marine litter? Insights from a choice experiment in England and Ireland

Marine litter is a problem impacting the coasts and seas of the whole world. Whilst an increasing number of studies investigate the effects of marine litter on public welfare, most of the research to date considers it as a component of coastal environmental quality. This study specifically examines the preferences and willingness to pay of English and Irish respondents towards the removal and prevention of marine litter, and the trade-off between different short-term (e.g., beach clean-up) and long-term (e.g., ban on single use plastic) policy actions. An online survey, including a choice experiment and behavioural questions, was used to quantify the welfare impacts of marine litter on the provision of recreation and cultural ecosystem services. We found that respondents are generally inclined to the implementation of a policy mix, with propensity for immediate action. Our results confirm the loss of societal benefits due to the presence of marine litter on beaches. The estimated marginal willingness to pay can be used to inform the design and assess costs and benefits of new local, national or supra-national mixed policies directed at reducing litter in the coastal and marine environment

The role of economics in ecosystem based management:The case of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive; first lessons learnt and way forward

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) sets out a plan of action relating to marine environmental policy and in particular to achieving ‘good environmental status’ (GES) in European marine waters by 2020. Article 8.1 (c) of the Directive calls for ‘an economic and social analysis of the use of those waters and of the cost of degradation of the marine environment’. The MSFD is ‘informed’ by the Ecosystem Approach to management, with GES interpreted in terms of ecosystem functioning and services provision. Implementation of the Ecosystem Approach is expected to be by adaptive management policy and practice. The initial socio-economic assessment was made by maritime EU Member States between 2011 and 2012, with future updates to be made on a regular basis. For the majority of Member States, this assessment has led to an exercise combining an analysis of maritime activities both at national and coastal zone scales, and an analysis of the non-market value of marine waters. In this paper we examine the approaches taken in more detail, outline the main challenges facing the Member States in assessing the economic value of achieving GES as outlined in the Directive and make recommendations for the theoretically sound and practically useful completion of the required follow-up economic assessments specified in the MSFD

Developing ecosystem accounts for the marine and coastal environment: Limitations, opportunities and lessons learned from the United Kingdom experience.

The marine and coastal environment provides crucial ecosystem services to sustain human activities and wellbeing. Advancing measurement frameworks to record the contribution of marine and coastal ecosystems to national wealth and economies and assess the sustainability of their use is therefore paramount. The recently proposed Ocean Accounting Framework outlined within the System of Environmental Economic Accounting represents a decisive step in this direction and provides a foundation for developing an integrated and standardised set of ecosystem accounts to support decision making and use of the seas. However, the ecological and socio-economic complexities of marine and coastal systems pose several challenges in compiling ecosystem accounts. This paper aims to discuss lessons learned, limitations and opportunities based on experience of developing an initial set of marine and coastal accounts for the United Kingdom. The paper reviews and addresses the challenges encountered and offers potential solutions for improving the measurement of marine and coastal ecosystems within accounting frameworks

The role of choice experiments in natural capital accounting approaches: fast track versus simulated exchange value in the Deben Estuary saltmarshes

Natural capital accounting requires exchange rather than welfare values, but lack of data and standards have encouraged practitioners to use different approaches (e.g. simple lookup table vs spatial modeling approaches). In this paper, we demonstrate how choice modeling data can provide simulated exchange values which are more robust than simple (fast track) valuation approaches for natural capital accounting. A survey of East of England residents collected the preferences for saltmarsh management and simulated exchange values, coherently linked with the ecosystem conditions. This approach is more informative for environmental local planning purposes. We claim that expanding the set of tools available for natural capital accounting can enhance management of ecosystem services and policy decision making

Assessing costs and benefits of measures to achieve good environmental status in European regional seas: challenges, opportunities, and lessons learnt

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires Member States to assess the costs and benefits of Programmes of Measures (PoMs) put in place to ensure that European marine waters achieve Good Environmental Status by 2020. An interdisciplinary approach is needed to carry out such an assessment whereby economic analysis is used to evaluate the outputs from ecological analysis that determines the expected effects of such management measures. This paper applies and tests an existing six-step approach to assess costs and benefits of management measures with potential to support the overall goal of the MSFD and discusses a range of ecological and economic analytical tools applicable to this task. Environmental cost-benefit analyses are considered for selected PoMs in three European case studies: Baltic Sea (Finland), East Coast Marine Plan area (UK), and the Bay of Biscay (Spain). These contrasting case studies are used to investigate the application of environmental cost-benefit analysis (CBA) including the challenges, opportunities and lessons learnt from using this approach. This paper demonstrates that there are opportunities in applying the six-step environmental CBA framework presented to assess the impact of PoMs. However, given demonstrated limitations of knowledge and data availability, application of other economic techniques should also be considered (although not applied here) to complement the more formal environmental CBA approach

Marine and coastal accounts for Small Island Developing States: A case study and application in Grenada

In recent decades, a concerted effort has been made to define methodologies and frameworks to account for the contribution of the natural environment to national wealth and its role in fulfilling societal and economic needs. The linkages between natural capital and human well-being are even stronger in low-income and vulnerable countries, such as Small Island Developing States (SIDS). This is particularly true for coastal and marine ecosystems and for SIDS, considering that a large portion of their population live along the coast. Therefore, SIDS would greatly benefit from systematically assessing and recording the condition and services provided by marine and coastal habitats in ecosystem accounts. Applications of accounting frameworks to marine and coastal habitats, however, are still under development. Through a case study in the Caribbean Island of Grenada, we explore SIDS readiness to develop marine and coastal natural capital accounts, in particular framed within the guidelines of the United Nations System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EA). We find that, while data to compile accounts of ecosystems extent exist and may be suitable for accounting, data related to ecosystem condition are very limited. Data gaps significantly constrained the potential approaches to estimate the ecosystem services supply provided by the coastal and marine environment in our natural capital accounts for Grenada. Our case study investigation brings us to suggest initial steps for the development of ecosystem accounts in SIDS, including potential methodologies and approaches and discuss how developing a set of coherent accounts can play a key role in incorporating nature into decision-making

Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK

Evidence shows that habitats with potential to mitigate against greenhouse gases emissions, by taking up and storing CO2, are being lost due to the effects of on-going human activities and climate change. The carbon storage by terrestrial habitats (e.g. tropical forests) and the role of coastal habitats (‘Blue Carbon’) as carbon storage sinks is well recognised. Offshore shelf sediments are also a manageable carbon store, covering ∼9% of global marine area, but not currently protected by international agreements to enable their conservation. Through a scenario analysis, we explore the economic value of the damage of human activities and climate change can inflict on UK marine habitats, including shelf sea sediments. In a scenario of increased human and climate pressures over a 25-year period, we estimate damage costs up to US$12.5 billion from carbon release linked to disturbance of coastal and shelf sea sediment carbon stores. It may be possible to manage socio-economic pressure to maintain sedimentary carbon storage, but the trade-offs with other global social welfare benefits such as food security will have to be taken into account. To develop effective incentive mechanisms to preserve these valuable coastal and marine ecosystems within a sustainability governance framework, robust evidence is required

Steps toward a shared governance response for achieving Good Environmental Status in the Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean region is of fundamental importance to Europe given its strategic position. The responsibility for its overall ecosystem integrity is shared by European Union Member States (EU-MS) and other Mediterranean countries. A juxtaposition of overlapping governance instruments occurred recently in the region, with the implementation of both the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) for EU-MS and the Ecosystem Approach Strategy (ECAP) for all Mediterranean countries, including EU-MS. Both MSFD and ECAP are structured around vision-driven processes to achieve Good Environmental Status and a Healthy Environment, respectively. These processes have clear ecosystem-based, integrated policy objectives to guarantee the preservation and integrity of Mediterranean marine ecosystem goods and services. However, adoption of these instruments, especially those related to the new EUMS directives on marine policy, could result in a governance gap in addition to the well-known economic gap between the EU and the non-EU political blocs. We identify two complementary requirements for effective implementation of both MSFD and ECAP that could work together to reduce this gap, to ensure a better alignment between MSFD and ECAP and better planning for stakeholder engagement. These are key issues for the future success of these instruments in a Mediterranean region where discrepancies between societal and ecological objectives may pose a challenge to these processes