Regulation of oxidative-stress responsive genes by arecoline in human keratinocytes

Background and Objective: Arecoline, an arecanut alkaloid present in the saliva of betel quid chewers, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of inflammatory oral diseases, including oral submucous fibrosis and periodontitis. To understand the molecular b asis of arecoline action in epithelial changes associated with these diseases, we investigated the effects of arecoline on human keratinocytes with respect to cell growth regulation and the expression of stress-responsive genes.Material and Methods:Human keratinocyte cells (of the HaCaT cell line) were treated with arecoline, following which cell viability was assessed using the Trypan Blue dye-exclusion assay, cell growth and proliferation were analyzed using the MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) and 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine incorporation assays, cell cycle arrest and generation of reactive oxygen species were examined using flow cytometry, and gene expression changes were investigated using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction technique. The role of oxidative stress, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were studied using specific inhibitors. Western blot analysis was performed to study p38 MAPK activation.Results:Arecoline induced the generation of reactive oxygen species and cell cycle arrest at the G1/G0 phase in HaCaT cells without affecting the expression of p21/Cip1. Arecoline-induced epithelial cell death at higher concentrations was caused by oxidative trauma without eliciting apoptosis. Sublethal concentrations of arecoline upregulated the expression of the following stress-responsive genes: heme oxygenase-1; ferritin light chain; glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit; and glutathione reductase.Additionally, there was a dose-dependent induction of interleukin-1alfa mRNA by arecoline via oxidative stress and p38 MAPK activation. Conclusion:our data highlight the role of oxidative stress in arecoline-mediated cell death, gene regulation and inflammatory processes in human keratinocytes

Regulation of extracellular matrix genes by arecoline in primary gingival fibroblasts requires epithelial factors

Background and Objective: Oral submucous fibrosis, a disease of collagen disorder, has been attributed to arecoline present in the saliva of betel quid chewers. However, the molecular basis of the action of arecoline in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis is poorly understood. The basic aim of our study was to elucidate the mechanism underlying the action of arecoline on the expression of genes in oral fibroblasts. Material and Methods: Human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) and primary human gingival fibroblasts were treated with arecoline in combination with various pathway inhibitors, and the expression of transforming growth factor-beta isoform genes and of collagen isoforms was assessed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis. Results: We observed the induction of transforming growth factor-beta2 by arecoline in HaCaT cells and this induction was found to be caused by activation of the M-3 muscarinic acid receptor via the induction of calcium and the protein kinase C pathway. Most importantly, we showed that transforming growth factor-beta2 was significantly overexpressed in oral submucous fibrosis tissues (p = 0.008), with a median of 2.13 (n = 21) compared with 0.75 (n = 18) in normal buccal mucosal tissues. Furthermore, arecoline down-regulated the expression of collagens 1A1 and 3A1 in human primary gingival fibroblasts; however these collagens were induced by arecoline in the presence of spent medium of cultured human keratinocytes. Treatment with a transforming growth factor-beta blocker, transforming growth factor-beta1 latency-associated peptide, reversed this up-regulation of collagen, suggesting a role for profibrotic cytokines, such as transforming growth factor-beta, in the induction of collagens. Conclusion: Taken together, our data highlight the importance of arecoline-induced epithelial changes in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis

Regulation of extracellular matrix genes by arecoline in primary gingival fibroblasts requires epithelial factors

Background and Objective: Oral submucous fibrosis, a disease of collagen disorder, has been attributed to arecoline present in the saliva of betel quid chewers. However, the molecular basis of the action of arecoline in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis is poorly understood. The basic aim of our study was to elucidate the mechanism underlying the action of arecoline on the expression of genes in oral fibroblasts. Material and Methods: Human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) and primary human gingival fibroblasts were treated with arecoline in combination with various pathway inhibitors, and the expression of transforming growth factor-beta isoform genes and of collagen isoforms was assessed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis. Results: We observed the induction of transforming growth factor-beta2 by arecoline in HaCaT cells and this induction was found to be caused by activation of the M-3 muscarinic acid receptor via the induction of calcium and the protein kinase C pathway. Most importantly, we showed that transforming growth factor-beta2 was significantly overexpressed in oral submucous fibrosis tissues (p = 0.008), with a median of 2.13 (n = 21) compared with 0.75 (n = 18) in normal buccal mucosal tissues. Furthermore, arecoline down-regulated the expression of collagens 1A1 and 3A1 in human primary gingival fibroblasts; however these collagens were induced by arecoline in the presence of spent medium of cultured human keratinocytes. Treatment with a transforming growth factor-beta blocker, transforming growth factor-beta1 latency-associated peptide, reversed this up-regulation of collagen, suggesting a role for profibrotic cytokines, such as transforming growth factor-beta, in the induction of collagens. Conclusion: Taken together, our data highlight the importance of arecoline-induced epithelial changes in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis

Transglutaminase-2 Regulation by Arecoline in Gingival Fibroblasts

Transglutaminase-2 (TGM-2) stabilizes extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins by cross-linking and has been implicated in several fibrotic disorders. Arecoline present in betel quid has been proposed as one of the causative factors for oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF). Hence, we hypothesize that arecoline may regulate TGM-2 and may have a role in the pathogenesis of OSMF. The expression of TGM-2 was studied in OSMF tissues by real-time RT-PCR analysis, and significant overexpression was observed in most OSMF tissues (P = 0.0112) compared with normal tissues. Arecoline induced TGM-2 mRNA and protein expression as well as TGM-2 activity in human gingival fibroblast cells. The addition of methocramine hemihydrate (M-2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor selective antagonist) or 8'-bromo-cAMP abolished arecoline-mediated TGM-2 induction, suggesting a role for M-2 muscarinic acid receptor and a repressor role for cAMP. Our study provides evidence for TGM-2 overexpression in OSMF and its regulation by arecoline in oral fibroblasts

Acetylcholine and the alpha 7 nicotinic receptor: a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of periodontal disease?

<p>Objectives: The aim of this review is to examine the evidence for a functional cholinergic system operating within the periodontium and determine the evidence for its role in periodontal immunity.</p> <p>Introduction: Acetylcholine can influence the immune system via the ‘cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway’. This pathway is mediated by the vagus nerve which releases acetylcholine to interact with the α7 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) on proximate immuno-regulatory cells. Activation of the α7nAChR on these cells leads to down-regulated expression of pro-inflammatory mediators and thus regulates localised inflammatory responses. The role of the vagus nerve in periodontal pathophysiology is currently unknown. However, non-neuronal cells can also release acetylcholine and express the α7nAChR; these include keratinocytes, fibroblasts, T cells, B cells and macrophages. Therefore, by both autocrine and paracrine methods non-neuronal acetylcholine can also be hypothesised to modulate the localised immune response.</p> <p>Methods: A Pubmed database search was performed for studies providing evidence for a functional cholinergic system operating in the periodontium. In addition, literature on the role of the ‘cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway’ in modulating the immune response was extrapolated to hypothesise that similar mechanisms of immune regulation occur within the periodontium.</p> <p>Conclusion: The evidence suggests a functional non-neuronal ‘cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway’ may operate in the periodontium and that this may be targeted therapeutically to treat periodontal disease.</p&gt