Externalities of Shipping in the Gulf of Finland until 2015

During the last few years, the discussion on the marginal social costs of transportation has been active. Applying the externalities as a tool to control transport would fulfil the polluter pays principle and simultaneously create a fair control method between the transport modes. This report presents the results of two calculation algorithms developed to estimate the marginal social costs based on the externalities of air pollution. The first algorithm calculates the future scenarios of sea transport traffic externalities until 2015 in the Gulf of Finland. The second algorithm calculates the externalities of Russian passenger car transit traffic via Finland by taking into account both sea and road transport. The algorithm estimates the ship-originated emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), particulates (PM) and the externalities for each year from 2007 to 2015. The total NOx emissions in the Gulf of Finland from the six ship types were almost 75.7 kilotons (Table 5.2) in 2007. The ship types are: passenger (including cruisers and ROPAX vessels), tanker, general cargo, Ro-Ro, container and bulk vessels. Due to the increase of traffic, the estimation for NOx emissions for 2015 is 112 kilotons. The NOx emission estimation for the whole Baltic Sea shipping is 370 kilotons in 2006 (Stipa & al, 2007). The total marginal social costs due to ship-originated CO2, NOx, SOx and PM emissions in the GOF were calculated to almost 175 million Euros in 2007. The costs will increase to nearly 214 million Euros in 2015 due to the traffic growth. The major part of the externalities is due to CO2 emissions. If we neglect the CO2 emissions by extracting the CO2 externalities from the results, we get the total externalities of 57 million Euros in 2007. After eight years (2015), the externalities would be 28 % lower, 41 million Euros (Table 8.1). This is the result of the sulphur emissions reducing regulation of marine fuels. The majority of the new car transit goes through Finland to Russia due to the lack of port capacity in Russia. The amount of cars was 339 620 vehicles (Statistics of Finnish Customs 2008) in 2005. The externalities are calculated for the transportation of passenger vehicles as follows: by ship to a Finnish port and, after that, by trucks to the Russian border checkpoint. The externalities are between 2 – 3 million Euros (year 2000 cost level) for each route. The ports included in the calculations are Hamina, Hanko, Kotka and Turku. With the Euro-3 standard trucks, the port of Hanko would be the best choice to transport the vehicles. This is because of lower emissions by new trucks and the saved transport distance of a ship. If the trucks are more polluting Euro 1 level trucks, the port of Kotka would be the best choice. This indicates that the truck emissions have a considerable effect on the externalities and that the transportation of light cargo, such as passenger cars by ship, produces considerably high emission externalities. The emission externalities approach offers a new insight for valuing the multiple traffic modes. However, the calculation of the marginal social costs based on the air emission externalities should not be regarded as a ready-made calculation system. The system is clearly in the need of some improvement but it can already be considered as a potential tool for political decision making.Siirretty Doriast

Maritime Safety in the Gulf of Finland. Review on Policy Instruments

Suomenlahden lisääntynyt meriliikenne on herättänyt huolta meriliikenteen turvallisuuden tasosta, ja erityisesti Venäjän öljyviennin kasvu on lisännyt öljyonnettomuuden todennäköisyyttä Suomenlahdella. Erilaiset kansainväliset, alueelliset ja kansalliset ohjauskeinot pyrkivät vähentämään merionnettomuuden riskiä ja meriliikenteen muita haittavaikutuksia. Tämä raportti käsittelee meriturvallisuuden yhteiskunnallisia ohjauskeinoja: ohjauskeinoja yleisellä tasolla, meriturvallisuuden keskeisimpiä säätelijöitä, meriturvallisuuden ohjauskeinoja ja meriturvallisuuspolitiikan tulevaisuuden näkymiä, ohjauskeinojen tehokkuutta ja nykyisen meriturvallisuuden ohjausjärjestelmän heikkouksia. Raportti on kirjallisuuskatsaus meriturvallisuuden yhteiskunnalliseen sääntelyn rakenteeseen ja tilaan erityisesti Suomenlahden meriliikenteen näkökulmasta. Raportti on osa tutkimusprojektia ”SAFGOF - Suomenlahden meriliikenteen kasvunäkymät 2007 - 2015 ja kasvun vaikutukset ympäristölle ja kuljetusketjujen toimintaan” ja sen työpakettia 6 ”Keskeisimmät riskit ja yhteiskunnalliset vaikutuskeinot”. Yhteiskunnalliset ohjauskeinot voidaan ryhmitellä hallinnollisiin, taloudellisiin ja tietoohjaukseen perustuviin ohjauskeinoihin. Meriturvallisuuden edistämisessä käytetään kaikkia näitä, mutta hallinnolliset ohjauskeinot ovat tärkeimmässä asemassa. Merenkulun kansainvälisen luonteen vuoksi meriturvallisuuden sääntely tapahtuu pääosin kansainvälisellä tasolla YK:n ja erityisesti Kansainvälisen merenkulkujärjestön (IMO) toimesta. Lisäksi myös Euroopan Unionilla on omaa meriturvallisuuteen liittyvää sääntelyä ja on myös olemassa muita alueellisia meriturvallisuuden edistämiseen liittyviä elimiä kuten HELCOM. Joitakin meriturvallisuuden osa-alueita säädellään myös kansallisella tasolla. Hallinnolliset meriturvallisuuden ohjauskeinot sisältävät aluksen rakenteisiin ja varustukseen, alusten kunnon valvontaan, merimiehiin ja merityön tekemiseen sekä navigointiin liittyviä ohjauskeinoja. Taloudellisiin ohjauskeinoihin kuuluvat esimerkiksi väylä- ja satamamaksut, merivakuutukset, P&I klubit, vastuullisuus- ja korvauskysymykset sekä taloudelliset kannustimet. Taloudellisten ohjauskeinojen käyttö meriturvallisuuden edistämiseen on melko vähäistä verrattuna hallinnollisten ohjauskeinojen käyttöön, mutta niitä voitaisiin varmasti käyttää enemmänkin. Ongelmana taloudellisten ohjauskeinojen käytössä on se, että ne kuuluvat pitkälti kansallisen sääntelyn piiriin, joten alueellisten tai kansainvälisten intressien edistäminen taloudellisilla ohjauskeinoilla voi olla hankalaa. Tieto-ohjaus perustuu toimijoiden vapaaehtoisuuteen ja yleisen tiedotuksen lisäksi tieto-ohjaukseen sisältyy esimerkiksi vapaaehtoinen koulutus, sertifiointi tai meriturvallisuuden edistämiseen tähtäävät palkinnot. Poliittisella tasolla meriliikenteen aiheuttamat turvallisuusriskit Suomenlahdella on otettu vakavasti ja paljon työtä tehdään eri tahoilla riskien minimoimiseksi. Uutta sääntelyä on odotettavissa etenkin liittyen meriliikenteen ympäristövaikutuksiin ja meriliikenteen ohjaukseen kuten meriliikenteen sähköisiin seurantajärjestelmiin. Myös inhimilliseen tekijän merkitykseen meriturvallisuuden kehittämisessä on kiinnitetty lisääntyvissä määrin huomiota, mutta inhimilliseen tekijän osalta tehokkaiden ohjauskeinojen kehittäminen näyttää olevan haasteellista. Yleisimmin lääkkeeksi esitetään koulutuksen kehittämistä. Kirjallisuudessa esitettyjen kriteereiden mukaan tehokkaiden ohjauskeinojen tulisi täyttää seuraavat vaatimukset: 1) tarkoituksenmukaisuus – ohjauskeinojen täytyy olla sopivia asetetun tavoitteen saavuttamiseen, 2) taloudellinen tehokkuus – ohjauskeinon hyödyt vs. kustannukset tulisi olla tasapainossa, 3) hyväksyttävyys – ohjauskeinon täytyy olla hyväksyttävä asianosaisten ja myös laajemman yhteiskunnan näkökulmasta katsottuna, 4) toimeenpano – ohjauskeinon toimeenpanon pitää olla mahdollista ja sen noudattamista täytyy pystyä valvomaan, 5) lateraaliset vaikutukset – hyvällä ohjauskeinolla on positiivisia seurannaisvaikutuksia muutoinkin kuin vain ohjauskeinon ensisijaisten tavoitteiden saavuttaminen, 6) kannustin ja uuden luominen – hyvä ohjauskeino kannustaa kokeilemaan uusia ratkaisuja ja kehittämään toimintaa. Meriturvallisuutta koskevaa sääntelyä on paljon ja yleisesti ottaen merionnettomuuksien lukumäärä on ollut laskeva viime vuosikymmenien aikana. Suuri osa sääntelystä on ollut tehokasta ja parantanut turvallisuuden tasoa maailman merillä. Silti merionnettomuuksia ja muita vaarallisia tapahtumia sattuu edelleen. Nykyistä sääntelyjärjestelmää voidaan kritisoida monen asian suhteen. Kansainvälisen sääntelyn aikaansaaminen ei ole helppoa: prosessi on yleensä hidas ja tuloksena voi olla kompromissien kompromissi. Kansainvälinen sääntely on yleensä reaktiivista eli ongelmakohtiin puututaan vasta kun jokin onnettomuus tapahtuu sen sijaan että se olisi proaktiivista ja pyrkisi puuttumaan ongelmakohtiin jo ennen kuin jotain tapahtuu. IMO:n työskentely perustuu kansallisvaltioiden osallistumiseen ja sääntelyn toimeenpano tapahtuu lippuvaltioiden toimesta. Kansallisvaltiot ajavat IMO:ssa pääasiallisesti omia intressejään ja sääntelyn toimeenpanossa on suuria eroja lippuvaltioiden välillä. IMO:n kyvyttömyys puuttua havaittuihin ongelmiin nopeasti ja ottaa sääntelyssä huomioon paikallisia olosuhteita on johtanut siihen, että esimerkiksi Euroopan Unioni on alkanut itse säädellä meriturvallisuutta ja että on olemassa sellaisia alueellisia erityisjärjestelyjä kuin PSSA (particularly sensitive sea area – erityisen herkkä merialue). Merenkulkualalla toimii monenlaisia yrityksiä: toisaalta yrityksiä, jotka pyrkivät toimimaan turvallisesti ja kehittämään turvallisuutta vielä korkeammalle tasolle, ja toisaalta yrityksiä, jotka toimivat niin halvalla kuin mahdollista, eivät välitä turvallisuusseikoista, ja joilla usein on monimutkaiset ja epämääräiset omistusolosuhteet ja joita vahingon sattuessa on vaikea saada vastuuseen. Ongelma on, että kansainvälisellä merenkulkualalla kaikkien yritysten on toimittava samoilla markkinoilla. Vastuuttomien yritysten toiminnan mahdollistavat laivaajat ja muut alan toimijat, jotka suostuvat tekemään yhteistyötä niiden kanssa. Välinpitämätön suhtautuminen turvallisuuteen johtuu osaksi myös merenkulun vanhoillisesta turvallisuuskulttuurista. Verrattaessa meriturvallisuuden sääntelyjärjestelmää kokonaisuutena tehokkaiden ohjauskeinoihin kriteereihin, voidaan todeta, että monien kriteerien osalta nykyistä järjestelmää voidaan pitää tehokkaana ja onnistuneena. Suurimmat ongelmat lienevät sääntelyn toimeenpanossa ja ohjauskeinojen kustannustehokkuudessa. Lippuvaltioiden toimeenpanoon perustuva järjestelmä ei toimi toivotulla tavalla, josta mukavuuslippujen olemassa olo on selvin merkki. Ohjauskeinojen, sekä yksittäisten ohjauskeinojen että vertailtaessa eri ohjauskeinoja keskenään, kustannustehokkuutta on usein vaikea arvioida, minkä seurauksena ohjauskeinojen kustannustehokkuudesta ei ole saatavissa luotettavaa tietoa ja tuloksena voi olla, että ohjauskeino on käytännössä pienen riskin eliminoimista korkealla kustannuksella. Kansainvälisen tason meriturvallisuus- (ja merenkulku-) politiikan menettelytavoiksi on ehdotettu myös muita vaihtoehtoja kuin nykyinen järjestelmä, esimerkiksi monitasoista tai polysentristä hallintojärjestelmää. Monitasoisella hallintojärjestelmällä tarkoitetaan järjestelmää, jossa keskushallinto on hajautettu sekä vertikaalisesti alueellisille tasoille että horisontaalisesti ei-valtiollisille toimijoille. Polysentrinen hallintojärjestelmä menee vielä askeleen pidemmälle. Polysentrinen hallintojärjestelmä on hallintotapa, jonka puitteissa kaikentyyppiset toimijat, sekä yksityiset että julkiset, voivat osallistua hallintoon, siis esimerkiksi hallitukset, edunvalvontajärjestöt, kaupalliset yritykset jne. Kansainvälinen lainsäädäntö määrittelee yleiset tasot, mutta konkreettiset toimenpiteet voidaan päättää paikallisella tasolla eri toimijoiden välisessä yhteistyössä. Tämän tyyppisissä hallintojärjestelmissä merenkulkualan todellinen, kansainvälinen mutta toisaalta paikallinen, toimintaympäristö tulisi otetuksi paremmin huomioon kuin järjestelmässä, joka perustuu kansallisvaltioiden keskenään yhteistyössä tekemään sääntelyyn. Tällainen muutos meriturvallisuuden hallinnassa vaatisi kuitenkin suurta periaatteellista suunnanmuutosta, jollaisen toteutumista ei voi pitää kovin todennäköisenä ainakaan lyhyellä tähtäimellä.The increasing shipping activity in the Gulf of Finland has raised concerns about the safety of maritime traffic, especially about the possibility of a large oil accident due to the increasing oil export activity of Russia in the area. Various international, supranational, regional and national policy instruments aim at minimizing the risks of accidents and other harmful effects of shipping. This report is concerned with maritime safety policy instruments: policy instruments in general; the central regulatory bodies of maritime safety; the maritime safety policy instruments and the future prospects of maritime policy; the effectiveness of policy instruments; and the critique of the current maritime safety policy system. The purpose of the report is to review the structure and state of the maritime safety policy system with focus on the Gulf of Finland. The report is a part of the EU-funded research project “SAFGOF - Evaluation of the Traffic Increase in the Gulf of Finland During the years 2007-2015 and the Effect of the Increase on the Environment and Traffic Chain Activities” and the Work Package 6: “Political and social instruments, guidelines and economic incentives”. Policy instruments can be grouped to regulatory, economic and information guidance instruments. Maritime safety is enhanced with all these instrument types, although most prominently with regulatory instruments. Due to the international character of the shipping industry, the regulation of maritime safety is mostly done at international level, in the framework of the United Nations and the International Maritime Organization IMO. However, the European Union also has maritime safety regulations of its own, there are regional arrangements such as HELCOM, and some maritime safety related issues are regulated at the national level. Regulatory maritime safety instruments include regulations on mariners, navigation, the surveillance of ship conditions and the construction and equipment of ships. Economic instruments include waterway and port dues, marine insurance, P&I clubs, liability and compensation questions and incentives. The use of economic instruments to promote public maritime safety goals is still in a minor position, but there are some examples that have potential for wider use. The problem with economic instruments is that, in many cases, they belong to the domain of national regulation, and their implementation at regional or international level can be difficult. Information guidance is based on voluntary actions and, in addition to the dissemination of information, it can include subjects like voluntary training, certification or awards. It seems that the risks of maritime traffic in the Gulf of Finland and in the Baltic Sea are taken seriously, and new ways to decrease these risks are developed. New regulations are planned or are going to be implemented, especially in the areas of the environmental effects of shipping (emissions, anti-fouling substances, alien species etc.) and navigational issues (AIS-based systems, electronic charts etc.). It is also often noticed that the human factor in maritime safety risks needs more attention, but it seems to be difficult to find policies effective in minimizing the effects of the human factor in maritime accidents and incidents. Training is most often offered as a solution. According to literature, effective maritime policy instruments should fulfil at least the following criteria: 1) effectiveness – the policy instrument must be suitable for achieving a desired goal, 2) economic efficiency – the benefits versus the costs of implementing the policy instrument should be in balance, 3) acceptability – the policy instrument must be accepted by the stakeholders and the community, 4) enforcement – the policy instrument can be implemented effectively, 5) lateral effects – the positive spill-over effects of the policy instrument in other sectors, 6) incentive and innovation – a good policy instrument encourages experimentation and gives incentives for improvement. Due to the increasing number of regulations on maritime safety, the number of maritime accidents has decreased during past decades. Most of the regulations have been effective in preventing accidents and incidents. Still, accidents and incidents happen at sea, and the current regulation system can be criticized on several points. The international regulation process is not easy; it tends to be slow and the result can become a compromise of compromises. Regulation is mostly reactive instead of proactive. The work of IMO is based on the participation of nation states and the implementation of regulation by flag states. Nation states are primarily promoting their own interests in IMO, and all flag states do not have the same implementation standards. The failure of IMO to provide fast responses and to take local circumstances into consideration in regulation has led to a situation where, for example, the European Union regulates maritime safety, and there are such arrangements as Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas. Many kinds of companies operate in the shipping industry: companies that take safety matters seriously and act responsibly, and companies that aim to operate as cheaply as possible, not caring about safety measures. The latter often have very obscure owner arrangements and are thus difficult to bring to account if something happens. The operation of irresponsible shipping companies is enabled by shippers who take the cheapest transport at the expense of safety and by other actors who play ball with such companies. The careless attitude to safety can also partly be attributed to the oldfashioned safety culture of the shipping industry. When comparing the current maritime safety policy system as a whole with the criteria for successful policies, it can be concluded that, in many respects, the current system is effective with the greatest problems being in implementation and in cost-effectiveness. The nation state based implementation system is not functioning properly, and the existence of flags of convenience is the clearest sign of that. The cost-effectiveness of policies is hard to calculate, both of single policies and of the policies in comparison with each other, which can result in a situation where a policy decreases little risk with high costs. New approaches to shipping policy at the international level, such as multi-level governance or polycentric governance systems, have been proposed. Multi-level governance means that central government authority is dispersed both vertically, to locate at other territorial levels, and horizontally, to non-state actors. Polycentric governance systems go one step further; they create a more complex policy-making framework, encompassing a variety of policy-generating origins across all types of institutions, both private and public (governments, interest groups, political parties, commercial companies etc.). International jurisdiction determines the levels, but the concrete measures can be decided locally in co-operation with different actors. These governance systems may offer a mechanism to reflect the actual activities within the maritime sector and the priorities of the stakeholders involved. However, such a change in international legislation seems remote.Siirretty Doriast

Development of Russian Ports in The Gulf of Finland

Russia has been one of the fastest developing economic areas in the world. Based on the GDP, the Russian economy grew evenly since the crisis in 1998 up till 2008. The growth in the gross domestic product has annually been some 5–10%. In 2007, the growth reached 8.1%, which is the highest figure after the 10% growth in 2000. Due to the growth of the economy and wage levels, purchasing power and consumption have been strongly increasing. The growing consumption has especially increased the imports of durables, such as passenger cars, domestic appliances and electronics. The Russian ports and infrastructure have not been able to satisfy the growing needs of exports and imports, which is why quite a large share of Russian foreign trade is going through third countries as transit transports. Finnish ports play a major role in transit transports to and from Russia. About 15% of the total value of Russian imports was transported through Finland in 2008. The economic recession that started in autumn 2008 and continues to date has had an impact on the economic development of Russia. The export income has decreased, mainly due to the reduced world market prices of energy products (oil and gas) and raw minerals. Investments have been postponed, getting credit is more difficult than before, and the ruble has weakened in relation to the euro and the dollar. The imports are decreasing remarkably, and are not forecast to reach the 2008 volumes even in 2012. The economic crisis is reflected in Finland's transit traffic. The volume of goods transported through Finland to and from Russia has decreased almost in the same proportion as the imports of goods to Russia. The biggest risk threatening the development of the Russian economy over long term is its dependence on export income from oil, gas, metals, minerals and forest products, as well as the trends of the world market prices of these products. Nevertheless, it is expected that the GDP of Russia will start to grow again in the forthcoming years due to the increased demand for energy products and raw minerals in the world. At the same time, it is obvious that the world market prices of these products will go up with the increasing demand. The increased income from exports will lead to a growth of imports, especially those of consumer goods, as the living standard of Russian citizens rises. The forecasts produced by the Russian Government concerning the economic development of Russia up till 2030 also indicate a shift in exported goods from raw materials to processed products, which together with energy products will become the main export goods of Russia. As a consequence, Russia may need export routes through third countries, which can be seen as an opportunity for increased transit transports through the ports of Finland. The ports competing with the ports of Finland for Russian foreign trade traffic are the Russian Baltic Sea ports and the ports of the Baltic countries. The strongest competitors are the Baltic Sea ports handling containers. On the Russian Baltic Sea, these ports include Saint Petersburg, Kaliningrad and, in the near future, the ports of Ust-Luga and possibly Vyborg. There are plans to develop Ust-Luga and Vyborg as modern container ports, which would become serious competitors to the Finnish ports. Russia is aiming to redirect as large a share as possible of foreign trade traffic to its own ports. The ports of Russia and the infrastructure associated with them are under constant development. On the other hand, the logistic capacity of Russia is not able to satisfy the continually growing needs of the Russian foreign trade. The capacity problem is emphasized by a structural incompatibility between the exports and imports in the Russian foreign trade. Russian exports can only use a small part of the containers brought in with imports. Problems are also caused by the difficult ice conditions and narrow waterways leading to the ports. It is predicted that Finland will maintain its position as a transit route for the Russian foreign trade, at least in the near future. The Russian foreign trade is increasing, and Russia will not be able to develop its ports in proportion with the increasing foreign trade. With the development of port capacity, cargo flows through the ports of Russia will grow. Structural changes in transit traffic are already visible. Firms are more and more relocating their production to Russia, for example as regards the assembly of cars and warehousing services. Simultaneously, an increasing part of transit cargoes are sent directly to Russia without unloading and reloading in Finland. New product groups have nevertheless been transported through Finland (textile products and tools), replacing the lost cargos. The global recession that started in autumn 2008 has influenced the volume of Russian imports and, consequently, the transit volumes of Finland, but the recession is not expected to be of long duration, and will thus only have a short-term impact on transit volumes. The Finnish infrastructure and services offered by the logistic chain should also be ready to react to the changes in imported product groups as well as to the change in Russian export products in the future. If the development plans of the Russian economy are realized, export products will be more refined, and the share of energy and raw material products will decrease. The other notable factor to be taken into consideration is the extremely fast-changing business environment in Russia. Operators in the logistic chain should be flexible enough to adapt to all kinds of changes to capitalise on business opportunities offered by the Russian foreign trade for the companies and for the transit volumes of Finnish ports, also in the future.Siirretty Doriast

Views of Finnish Maritime Experts on The Effectiveness of Maritime Safety Policy Instruments

Siirretty Doriast

Cargo Traffic on the Helsinki-Tallinn Route

The twin-city model has found to increase economical activity and well-being. The similar economical, social and cultural background of Finland and Estonia as well as the EU integration give good preconditions to create a twin-city of Helsinki and Tallinn. The relatively long distance between Helsinki and Tallinn is challenging. Therefore, good transport infrastructure and functioning connections are required to form a twin-city of Helsinki and Tallinn. The connections between these cities can be considered also in broader perspective than only from the viewpoint of the twin-city concept. New markets areas have been emerged in Europe due to collapse of planned economy and integration of Europe. Also the transport routes to the markets are changing. The Hel-sinki-Tallinn sea route can be considered as a fast route to the new markets in the Cen-tral and Eastern Europe. The Helsinki-Tallinn sea route is also a potential route to the Western European markets. This study provides an analysis of transport and cargo flows between Finland and Esto-nia for regional and local planners. The main purpose of the study is to clarify the pre-sent situation of the seaborne cargo flows on the Helsinki-Tallinn route and how the cargo flows will develop in the future. The study focuses on the following thematic enti-ties: the Finnish and Estonian seaborne transport system and cargo flows, the structure and volume of the cargo flows on the Helsinki-Tallinn route, the hinterland cargo flows on the Helsinki-Tallinn route and the transport methods used on the Helsinki-Tallinn route. The study was carried out as a desk research, a statistical analysis and an inter-view study during the spring–autumn 2011. The study reveals that during the period 2002–2010 the volume of the seaborne cargo traffic between Finland and Estonia has increased significantly while the trend of the trade volume between Finland and Estonia has remained nearly constant. This indicates that the route via Estonia is increasingly used in the Finnish foreign trade. Because the ports of Helsinki and Tallinn are the main ports in the cargo traffic between Finland and Estonia, the role of the Helsinki-Tallinn route as a sea leg in the hinterland connections of Finland has increased. The growth of the cargo volume on the Helsinki-Tallinn route was estimated to continue on the annual level of 10 % during the next couple of years. In the long run the growth of the cargo volumes depends on the economical and indus-trial development of the former Eastern European countries. If the IMO’s sulphur regu-lations will come in force, the Helsinki-Tallinn route will become one of the main routes also to the Western European markets, besides of the route via Sweden. The study also shows that the fast and reliable connections year round on the Helsinki-Tallinn route have made it possible for service and logistics companies to reconsider their logistics strategies in a new way in the both side of the Gulf of Finland. Anyway, the ropax concept is seen as the only economical profitable solution on the Helsinki-Tallinn route because cargo and passenger traffic are supporting each other. The trucks (vehicle combinations) will remain the main mode of transport on the Helsinki-Tallinn route because general cargo is the main commodity on the route. IMO’s sulphur regula-tions and the changes in the structure of the Finnish industry may create prerequisites for rail road transport in the hinterland connections of Finland. The twin-city model has found to increase economical activity and well-being. The similar economical, social and cultural background of Finland and Estonia as well as the EU integration give good preconditions to create a twin-city of Helsinki and Tallinn. The relatively long distance between Helsinki and Tallinn is challenging. Therefore, good transport infrastructure and functioning connections are required to form a twin-city of Helsinki and Tallinn. The connections between these cities can be considered also in broader perspective than only from the viewpoint of the twin-city concept. New markets areas have been emerged in Europe due to collapse of planned economy and integration of Europe. Also the transport routes to the markets are changing. The Hel-sinki-Tallinn sea route can be considered as a fast route to the new markets in the Cen-tral and Eastern Europe. The Helsinki-Tallinn sea route is also a potential route to the Western European markets. This study provides an analysis of transport and cargo flows between Finland and Esto-nia for regional and local planners. The main purpose of the study is to clarify the pre-sent situation of the seaborne cargo flows on the Helsinki-Tallinn route and how the cargo flows will develop in the future. The study focuses on the following thematic enti-ties: the Finnish and Estonian seaborne transport system and cargo flows, the structure and volume of the cargo flows on the Helsinki-Tallinn route, the hinterland cargo flows on the Helsinki-Tallinn route and the transport methods used on the Helsinki-Tallinn route. The study was carried out as a desk research, a statistical analysis and an inter-view study during the spring–autumn 2011. The study reveals that during the period 2002–2010 the volume of the seaborne cargo traffic between Finland and Estonia has increased significantly while the trend of the trade volume between Finland and Estonia has remained nearly constant. This indicates that the route via Estonia is increasingly used in the Finnish foreign trade. Because the ports of Helsinki and Tallinn are the main ports in the cargo traffic between Finland and Estonia, the role of the Helsinki-Tallinn route as a sea leg in the hinterland connections of Finland has increased. The growth of the cargo volume on the Helsinki-Tallinn route was estimated to continue on the annual level of 10 % during the next couple of years. In the long run the growth of the cargo volumes depends on the economical and indus-trial development of the former Eastern European countries. If the IMO’s sulphur regu-lations will come in force, the Helsinki-Tallinn route will become one of the main routes also to the Western European markets, besides of the route via Sweden. The study also shows that the fast and reliable connections year round on the Helsinki-Tallinn route have made it possible for service and logistics companies to reconsider their logistics strategies in a new way in the both side of the Gulf of Finland. Anyway, the ropax concept is seen as the only economical profitable solution on the Helsinki-Tallinn route because cargo and passenger traffic are supporting each other. The trucks (vehicle combinations) will remain the main mode of transport on the Helsinki-Tallinn route because general cargo is the main commodity on the route. IMO’s sulphur regula-tions and the changes in the structure of the Finnish industry may create prerequisites for rail road transport in the hinterland connections of Finland.Siirretty Doriast

Effectiveness of Pilotage

The objective of the pilotage effectiveness study was to come up with a process descrip-tion of the pilotage procedure, to design performance indicators based on this process description, to be used by Finnpilot, and to work out a preliminary plan for the imple-mentation of the indicators within the Finnpilot organisation. The theoretical aspects of pilotage as well as the guidelines and standards used were determined through a literature review. Based on the literature review, a process flow model with the following phases was created: the planning of pilotage, the start of pilo-tage, the act of pilotage, the end of pilotage and the closing of pilotage. The model based on the literature review was tested through interviews and observation of pilotage. At the same time an e-mail survey directed at foreign pilotage organisations, which included a questionnaire concerning their standards and management systems, operations procedures, measurement tools and their attitude to the passage planning, was conducted. The main issues in the observations and interviews were the passage plan and the bridge team co-operation. The phases of the pilotage process model emerged in both the pilotage activities and the interviews whereas bridge team co-operation was relatively marginal. Most of the pilotage organisations, who responded to the query, also use some standard-based management system. All organisations who answered the survey use some sort of a pilotage process model. According to the query, the main measuring tools for pilotage are statistical information concerning pilotage and the organisations, the customer feedback surveys, and financial results. Attitudes to-wards passage planning were mostly positive among the organisations. A workshop with pilotage experts was arranged where the process model constructed on the basis of the literature review was tuned to match practical pilotage. In the workshop it was determined that certain phases and the corresponding tasks, through which pilo-tage can be described as a process, were identifiable in all pilotage. The result of the workshop was a complemented process model, which separates incoming and outgoing traffic, as well as the fairway pilotage and harbour pilotage from each other. Addition-ally indicators divided according to the data gathering method were defined. Data con-cerning safety and traffic flow is gathered in the form of customer feedback. The pilot's own perceptions of the pilotage process are gathered through self-assessment. The measurement data which is connected to the phases of the pilotage process is generated e.g. by gathering statistics of the success of the pilot dispatches, the accuracy of the pi-lotage and the incidents that occurred during the pilotage, near misses, deviations and accidents. The measurement data is collected via the PilotWeb at the closing of the pilo-tage. A separate project and a project group with pilots also participating will be established for the deployment of the performance indicators. The phases of the project are: the definition phase, the implementation phase and the deployment phase. The purpose of the definition phase is to prepare questions for ship commanders concerning the cus-tomer feedback questionnaire and also to work out the self-assessment queries and the queries concerning the process indicators.Siirretty Doriast

Economics of a Nordic paper mill–case study.

Purpose – The aim of this case study is to reveal the development of prices, costs and logistics in the case mill and how do these variables correlate with profits and finally to give suggestions for improvements.   Design/methodology/approach – We selected a typical Finnish paper mill as the basis for the case study. The mill data contains complete years from 2001 to 2007 on a monthly level. The data was obtained from the mill’s economic system and transferred to Excel. Statistica 4.1 was used to run the statistical correlation analyses. The results can be generalized with certain limitations to paper manufacturing located far from its customers.   Findings – This paper reveals an important insight on the economics of the Finnish paper industry. From theory building point of view, our empirical process data brings out, that the variation in the production lines were minimal, but there are big variations in paper deliveries, There are a lot to gain in the logistics processes. Larger volumes of the delivered tons also tend to increase profits. From the mill to the consignees, fluctuations in the process and paper sales grow substantially, which indicate longer storage times.   Research limitations/implications – The results of the case study are based on the data of one large integrated paper mill in Finland covering the years 2001-2007, so the results cannot be directly generalised to all Nordic paper mills. In May 2005, there was an industrial blackout, which affected considerably the production and deliveries from all the Finnish paper mills during that year.   Practical implications – The competitive advantages of the Finnish paper industry are weakened by the low paper prices and costly logistics. The mill managers should focus more on the overcapacity and cost issues and also deliver volumes, which all could contribute higher profits.     Originality/value – In this paper we study the Finnish paper industry together with time series, economic geography and statistical tools. This approach is a novel method and gives new insight for this research object. We study the mill’s economic variables as paper prices, profits and logistics and manufacturing costs and the characteristics of these issues in the spatial context. Purpose – The aim of this case study is to reveal the development of prices, costs and logistics in the case mill and how do these variables correlate with profits and finally to give suggestions for improvements.   Design/methodology/approach – We selected a typical Finnish paper mill as the basis for the case study. The mill data contains complete years from 2001 to 2007 on a monthly level. The data was obtained from the mill’s economic system and transferred to Excel. Statistica 4.1 was used to run the statistical correlation analyses. The results can be generalized with certain limitations to paper manufacturing located far from its customers.   Findings – This paper reveals an important insight on the economics of the Finnish paper industry. From theory building point of view, our empirical process data brings out, that the variation in the production lines were minimal, but there are big variations in paper deliveries, There are a lot to gain in the logistics processes. Larger volumes of the delivered tons also tend to increase profits. From the mill to the consignees, fluctuations in the process and paper sales grow substantially, which indicate longer storage times.   Research limitations/implications – The results of the case study are based on the data of one large integrated paper mill in Finland covering the years 2001-2007, so the results cannot be directly generalised to all Nordic paper mills. In May 2005, there was an industrial blackout, which affected considerably the production and deliveries from all the Finnish paper mills during that year.   Practical implications – The competitive advantages of the Finnish paper industry are weakened by the low paper prices and costly logistics. The mill managers should focus more on the overcapacity and cost issues and also deliver volumes, which all could contribute higher profits.   Originality/value – In this paper we study the Finnish paper industry together with time series, economic geography and statistical tools. This approach is a novel method and gives new insight for this research object. We study the mill’s economic variables as paper prices, profits and logistics and manufacturing costs and the characteristics of these issues in the spatial context. </p

Finnish Critical Industries, Maritime Transport Vulnerabilities and societal Implications

Maritime transports are very essential for Finland as over 80% of the foreign trade in the country is seaborne and possibilities to carry out these transports by are limited. Any disruption in maritime transports has negative consequences to many sectors in the Finnish economy. Maritime transport thus represents critical infrastructure for Finland. This report focuses on the importance of maritime transports on security of supply in Finland and for the so called critical industries in particular. The report summarizes the results of the Work Package 2 of the research project STOCA – “Study of cargo flows in the Gulf of Finland in emergency situations”. The aim of the research was to analyze the cargo flows and infrastructure that are vital for maintaining security of supply in Finland, as well as the consequences of disruptions in the maritime traffic for the Finnish critical industries and for the Finnish society. In the report we give a presentation of the infrastructure and transport routes which are critical for maintaining security of supply in Finland. We discuss import dependency of the critical industries, and the importance of the Gulf of Finland ports for Finland. We assess vulnerabilities associated with the critical material flows of the critical industries, and possibilities for alternative routings in case either one or several of the ports in Finland would be closed. As a concrete example of a transport disruption we analyze the consequences of the Finnish stevedore strike at public ports (4.3.–19.3.2010). The strike stopped approximately 80% of the Finnish foreign trade. As a result of the strike Finnish companies could not export their products and/or import raw materials, components and spare parts, or other essential supplies. We carried out personal interviews with representatives of the companies in Finnish critical industries to find out about the problems caused by the strike, how companies carried out they transports and how they managed to continue their operations during the strike. Discussions with the representatives of the companies gave us very practical insights about companies’ preparedness towards transport disruptions in general. Companies in the modern world are very vulnerable to transport disruptions because companies regardless of industries have tried to improve their performance by optimizing their resources and e.g. by reducing their inventory levels. At the same time they have become more and more dependent on continuous transports. Most companies involved in foreign trade have global operations and global supply chains, so any disruption anywhere in the world can have an impact on the operations of the company causing considerable financial loss. The volcanic eruption in Iceland in April 2010 stopping air traffic in the whole Northern Europe and most recently the earth quake causing a tsunami in Japan in March 2011 are examples of severe disruptions causing considerable negative impacts to companies’ supply chains. Even though the Finnish stevedore strike was a minor disruption compared to the natural catastrophes mentioned above, it showed the companies’ vulnerability to transport disruptions very concretely. The Finnish stevedore strike gave a concrete learning experience of the importance of preventive planning for all Finnish companies: it made them re-think their practical preparedness towards transport risks and how they can continue with their daily operations despite the problems. Many companies realized they need to adapt their long-term countermeasures against transport disruptions. During the strike companies did various actions to secure their supply chains. The companies raised their inventory levels before the strike began, they re-scheduled or postponed their deliveries, shifted customer orders between production plants among their company’s production network or in the extreme case bought finished products from their competitor to fulfil their customers’ order. Our results also show that possibilities to prepare against transport disruptions differ between industries. The Finnish society as a whole is very dependent on imports of energy, various raw materials and other supplies needed by the different industries. For many of the Finnish companies in the export industries and e.g. in energy production maritime transport is the only transport mode the companies can use due to large volumes of materials transported or due to other characteristics of the goods. Therefore maritime transport cannot be replaced by any other transport mode. In addition, a significant amount of transports are concentrated in certain ports. From a security of supply perspective attention should be paid to finding ways to decrease import dependency and ensuring that companies in the critical industries can ensure the continuity of their operations.Siirretty Doriast

Security of supply, case Finnish ports

Security of supply involves all the activities that are undertaken to secure a nations&rsquo; functioning and the welfare of its citizens in case of major disturbances and emergency situations. Maritime transports are very essential for Finland as over 80% of the foreign trade in the country is seaborne and possibilities to carry out these transports by other means of transport are limited. Any disruption in maritime transports has negative consequences to many sectors in the Finnish economy. With this paper we contribute to analysis on mitigation strategies of critical industries towards transport disruptions. Our case study concentrates on impacts of a port closure due to a strike in Finland in 2010 and companies&rsquo; strategies to manage their operations during the strike, and we draw conclusions to the general structure of mitigation strategies towards logistic vulnerability. The strike stopped approximately 80% of the Finnish foreign trade. We carried out personal interviews with representatives of the companies in Finnish critical industries to find out about the problems caused by the strike, how companies carried out their transports and how they managed to continue their operations during the strike. As a result of the strike Finnish companies could not export their products and/or import raw materials, components and spare parts, or other essential supplies. During the strike companies did various actions to secure their supply chains. The companies raised their inventory levels before the strike began, they rescheduled or postponed their deliveries, shifted customer orders between production plants among the company&rsquo;s production network, or in the extreme case bought finished products from their competitor to fulfill their customers&rsquo; order. Our results also show that possibilities to prepare against transport disruptions differ between industries.</p

TUKKE – Tuoteseuranta satamasidonnaisessa kuljetusketjussa

Logistiikka-alalla toimivien yritysten liiketoimintaympäristö on muuttunut globalisaation myötä maailmanlaajuiseksi ja entistä dynaamisemmaksi. Tämä on lisännyt ajantasaisen ja virheettömän tiedon välityksen merkitystä läpi maa- ja yritysrajojen ylittävien toimitusketjujen. Tuoteseuranta ja siihen liittyvän tiedon välittäminen ovat olennainen osa maailmanlaajuisten toimitusketjujen hallintaa. Tuoteseurannan avulla tavaratoimituksia voidaan seurata läpi toimitusketjun, minkä ansiosta tieto kuljetuskaluston, kuljetusyksiköiden ja tuotteiden sijainnista ja saatavuudesta on tarvittaessa eri osapuolten käytettävissä ajasta ja paikasta riippumatta. Tarkan tavaratoimitusten sijainnin tietäminen tehostaa toimitusketjun eri osapuolten resurssien suunnittelua ja kohdistamista, mahdollistaa toimitusketjun pullonkaulojen havaitsemisen sekä helpottaa poikkeamatilanteiden hallintaa. Satamissa toimitusketjujen hallinnan merkitys korostuu toimijoiden ja erilaisten prosessien monitahoisuudesta johtuen. Tämä tutkimusraportti on Turun yliopiston Merenkulkualan koulutus- ja tutkimuskeskuksen Kotkan yksikössä tammikuun 2008 ja elokuun 2009 välisenä aikana toteutetun Tuoteseuranta satamasidonnaisessa kuljetusketjussa (TUKKE) -projektin loppuraportti TUKKE-projektissa tarkasteltiin satamasidonnaisissa kuljetusketjuissa liikkuvia tietovirtoja ja niiden jakamista eri toimijoiden kesken sekä selvitettiin satamasidonnaisten kuljetusketjujen tuoteseurannan nykytilaa ja kehitysmahdollisuuksia. Tuoteseurannassa hyödynnettävät tunnistus- ja paikannusmenetelmät voidaan jakaa satelliittipaikannus-, verkkopaikannus- ja lähipaikannusmenetelmiin. Satelliittipaikannus on käytännössä ainoa reaaliaikaisen maailmanlaajuisen tuoteseurannan mahdollistava menetelmä, jonka tarkkuus on tyypillisesti muutamia metrejä, mutta erilaisilla laajennuksilla voidaan päästä vieläkin parempiin paikannustarkkuuksiin. Satelliittipaikannus soveltuu pääasiassa kuljetusvälineiden ja suurten kuljetusyksiköiden (esim. kontti) seurantaan, ja vain erityistapauksissa kriittisten yksittäisten tuotteiden seurantaan. Verkkopaikannusmenetelmät eivät yksistään sovellu ehdotonta tarkkuutta vaativiin paikannussovelluksiin, sillä niiden tarkkuus vaihtelee tekniikasta ja ympäristöstä riippuen kymmenistä metreistä aina kymmeniin kilometreihin. Jatkuvan ja reaaliaikaisen kaupallisen paikannuspalvelun toteuttaminen verkkopaikannusmenetelmillä on käytännössä mahdotonta. Verkkopaikannusta voidaankin hyödyntää lähinnä yksittäisiä paikkapyyntöjä toteuttavana menetelmänä, joka soveltuu toimitusketjuissa lähinnä tavaratoimitusten karkean tason seurantaan. Verkkopaikannus soveltuu nykyään lähinnä satelliittipaikannusta tukevaksi menetelmäksi, esimerkiksi poikkeamatilanteiden hallinnassa. Lähipaikannustekniikat ovat ainoita paikannusmenetelmiä, joilla päästään jopa senttimetritason tarkkuuksiin sekä sisä- että ulkotiloissa. Lähipaikannusmenetelmät soveltuvat hyvin esimerkiksi varastojen hallintaan. Lähipaikannusmenetelmiin kuuluvat tunnistusmenetelmät (viivakoodi ja RFID) helpottavat tuotteiden hallintaa tarjoamalla statustietoa tavaratoimituksista toimitusketjun eri vaiheissa. Tunnistusmenetelmät ovat usein järkevin ratkaisu tuotetasoisessa seurannassa. Erilaiset tavaratoimitukset asettavat erilaisia vaatimuksia tuoteseurannalle. Kokokuormatasoisten kuljetusten seuranta on perinteisesti perustunut konttien osalta yksilölliseen tunnistenumeroon sekä perävaunun ja trailerin osalta rekisterinumeroon. Kokokuormayksiköiden seurannassa olisi mahdollista siirtyä käyttämään tehokkaampia seurantamenetelmiä, joista satelliittipaikannus ja RFID-tekniikka ovat useimmissa tapauksissa sopivimmat ratkaisut. Kokokuormatason seuranta edellyttää seurantatekniikan (esim. RFID-tunniste tai GPS-vastaanotin) asentamista seurattavaan kuljetusyksikköön (esim. kontti). Kokokuormatasoinen seuranta riittää monissa tapauksissa, koska kuljetusyksikköä seurattaessa voidaan samalla seurata sen sisältämiä osakuormia ja yksittäisiä tuotteita. Osakuormatasoinen seuranta tarkoittaa kuljetuslavojen tai muiden vastaavien kuljetusalustojen seurantaa. Kuljetuslavojen seuranta on mahdollista toteuttaa lavakohtaisilla tunnisteilla (esim. RFID-tunniste), joihin voidaan linkittää myös tieto lavan sisältämistä tuotteista. Kuljetuslavoja voidaan seurata reaaliaikaisesti myös satelliittipaikannuksella, mutta tälle ei useinkaan ole tarvetta, koska yleensä toimitusketjun eri osapuolia kiinnostaa lähinnä tavaratoimituksiin liittyvä statustieto. Tuotetasolla tapahtuva tuoteseuranta mahdollistaa yksityiskohtaisen ja tarkan tuotteiden tunnistamisen ja paikantamisen läpi kuljetusketjun. Tuotetasoinen seuranta edellyttää seurantatekniikan asentamista jokaiseen yksittäiseen seurattavaan tuotteeseen. Käytännössä ainoat tuotetasoiseen seurantaan soveltuvat seurantatekniikat ovat viivakoodi- ja RFID-tunnistustekniikat, koska tuotetasoisen seurannan toteuttaminen muilla seurantatekniikoilla ei ole yleensä taloudellisesti järkevää. Yleisesti ottaen tuotetasoista seurantaa kannattaa hyödyntää lähinnä tuotteiden tunnistamisessa ja statustietopohjaisissa sovelluksissa eikä niinkään varsinaisessa paikannuksessa. Satamasidonnaisten kuljetusketjujen tuoteseuranta perustuu nykyään lähinnä statustietoon ja sitä tarjoaviin tunnistustekniikoihin. Tämä johtuu pääasiassa siitä, ettei satamasidonnaisissa toimitusketjuissa useinkaan tarvita statustietoa tarkempaa tietoa, vaan yleensä pelkkä ETA-tieto riittää. Esimerkiksi reaaliaikaista paikkatietoa tarjoavaa satelliittipaikannustekniikkaa hyödynnetään satamasidonnaisissa kuljetusketjuissa lähinnä navigoinnissa ja reittisuunnittelussa, mutta vain harvoin reaaliaikaisessa tuoteseurannassa. Matkapuhelinverkkoihin perustuva paikannus ei näyttäisi olevan yleisessä käytössä satamasidonnaisten kuljetusketjujen tuoteseurannassa. Toimijoiden laajasta kirjosta johtuen satamasidonnaisissa toimitusketjuissa on harvoin käytössä yhtenäistä koko toimitusketjun kattavaa tuoteseurantajärjestelmää. Laajan ja useita toimijoita sisältävän tuoteseurantajärjestelmän rajapintojen ja standardien integrointi on erittäin haastavaa. Kullakin toimitusketjun toimijalla on yleensä käytössä omia sisäisiä järjestelmiä, joilla voidaan tietyiltä osin hallita tavaratoimitusten seurantaa kyseisen yrityksen näkökulmasta. Yhtenäinen koko toimitusketjun kattava tuoteseurantaratkaisu voi toimia suljetuissa järjestelmissä, joissa on rajattu määrä toimijoita ja joissa tavoitellaan vain näiden toimijoiden yhteisiä etuja. Suljetuissa järjestelmissä eri toimijoiden väliset rajapinnat on integroitu keskenään yhteensopiviksi, ja osapuolien välille on muodostunut vakiintuneita toimintatapoja. Lisäksi suljetut järjestelmät pysyvät usein melko muuttumattomina. Nämä tekijät tuovat läpinäkyvyyttä suljettuun toimitusketjuun, ja tuotetiedon jakamisesta tulee luonnollinen osa toimitusketjun toimintaa. Tekniset valmiudet hyvinkin kehittyneiden ja monipuolisten koko toimitusketjuja kattavien tuoteseurantaratkaisujen toteuttamiseen ovat jo olemassa. Toimitusketjujen laajuisten seurantaratkaisujen kehittämisen esteenä eivät siis niinkään ole itse seurantatietoa tuottavat tunnistus- ja paikannustekniikat, vaan suurimpana haasteena on seurantatiedon saattaminen sellaiseen muotoon, että se on helposti jokaisen toimitusketjun osapuolen saatavissa ja hyödynnettävissä. Yksittäisillä mailla ja satamilla on jo nykyään käytössä eräänlaisia tietoportaaleja, jotka mahdollistavat tavaratoimituksiin liittyvien tietojen keskitetyn tallentamisen ja hyödyntämisen. Myös Suomen meriliikennettä palvelee tämäntapainen keskitetty tietoportaali PortNet, joka on tarkoitettu pääasiassa aluskäynteihin liittyvien tietojen jakamiseen eri toimijoiden kesken. PortNet sisältää kuitenkin tietoa vain Suomen satamiin kohdistuvista aluskäynneistä. Tästä johtuen tavaratoimitusten seuranta läpi globaalien toimitusketjujen ei ole PortNet-järjestelmällä mahdollista. Tulevaisuuden kannalta olisikin tärkeää pohtia, olisiko mahdollista kehittää PortNetjärjestelmän kaltainen globaali tietoportaali, joka palvelisi kansainvälisiä satamasidonnaisia toimitusketjuja ja loisi pohjan läpinäkyvälle maa- ja yritysrajat ylittävälle tuoteseurantaratkaisulle.Siirretty Doriast