Carotenoids in Algae: Distributions, Biosyntheses and Functions

For photosynthesis, phototrophic organisms necessarily synthesize not only chlorophylls but also carotenoids. Many kinds of carotenoids are found in algae and, recently, taxonomic studies of algae have been developed. In this review, the relationship between the distribution of carotenoids and the phylogeny of oxygenic phototrophs in sea and fresh water, including cyanobacteria, red algae, brown algae and green algae, is summarized. These phototrophs contain division- or class-specific carotenoids, such as fucoxanthin, peridinin and siphonaxanthin. The distribution of α-carotene and its derivatives, such as lutein, loroxanthin and siphonaxanthin, are limited to divisions of Rhodophyta (macrophytic type), Cryptophyta, Euglenophyta, Chlorarachniophyta and Chlorophyta. In addition, carotenogenesis pathways are discussed based on the chemical structures of carotenoids and known characteristics of carotenogenesis enzymes in other organisms; genes and enzymes for carotenogenesis in algae are not yet known. Most carotenoids bind to membrane-bound pigment-protein complexes, such as reaction center, light-harvesting and cytochrome b6f complexes. Water-soluble peridinin-chlorophyll a-protein (PCP) and orange carotenoid protein (OCP) are also established. Some functions of carotenoids in photosynthesis are also briefly summarized

Some Notes on Avoiding Lexical Ambiguity in English Usage

This paper aims to investigate how they avoid lexical ambiguity in English Usage. In order to understand the ways they disambiguate words or expressions, we are going to take three types of ambiguous expressions: the third finger, jewel case, and email. These expressions are ambiguous in some situations, but they use some means to disambiguate them: (1) register factors, (2) synonymous derived words, (3) a different expression. As for “the third finger”, it normally refers to the ring finger, but in the medical situation among doctors it refers to the middle finger. Register plays an important role when they disambiguate the expression. In the case of “jewel case”, it refers not only to a container of jewelry but also to a CD case. They have come to use “jewel case” to a CD case, and “jewelry case” to a container of jewelry. They use the word “jewelry”, which is derived from “jewel”, to refer to the original object. The word “email” refers to every mail sent through the Internet or smart phones, but they tend to distinguish between email sent by smart phones and email through the Internet, using a different expression “text message”.研究論

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Preparation of tough, thermally stable, and water-resistant double-network ion gels consisting of silica nanoparticles/poly(ionic liquid)s through photopolymerisation of an ionic monomer and subsequent solvent removal

We report the preparation of tough, thermally stable, and water-resistant double-network (DN) ion gels, which consist of a partially-clustered silica nanoparticle network and poly(ionic liquid) (PIL) network holding an ionic liquid. Silica nanoparticles/poly([Evim][Tf2N]) DN ion gels are prepared by photo-induced radical polymerisation of [Evim][Tf2N] in a mixture containing silica nanoparticles, [Bmim][Tf2N], ionic liquid based cross-linker [(VIM)2C4][Tf2N]2, and ethyl acetate, followed by subsequent solvent evaporation. Tensile strength measurements show that the mechanical properties of the PIL DN ion gels were higher than those of the PIL single-network (SN) ion gel. A rheological study indicates that an enhancement in mechanical strength of the PIL DN ion gels can be achieved when silica nanoparticles form partial clusters in [Bmim][Tf2N]. The cyclic stress–strain measurement of the PIL DN ion gels shows hysteresis loops, suggesting that the silica nanoparticle clusters rupture and dissipate the loading energy when the PIL DN ion gels undergo a large deformation. The fracture strength and Young's modulus of the PIL DN ion gels increase as the diameter of the silica nanoparticles is decreased. Thermogravimetric analysis measurement shows that the PIL DN ion gel has a high decomposition temperature of approximately 400 °C. Moreover, the swelling test shows that the PIL DN ion gel possesses an excellent water-resistant property because of the hydrophobic nature of the PIL backbone. We believe that such tough, thermally stable, and water-resistant PIL DN ion gels can be used as carbon dioxide separation membranes, sensors, and actuators for soft robotics

Some Remarks on the Use of the Expression “According to me”

It has been extensively explained in grammar and usage books that we can not use the expression “according to me”. However, we sometimes find this expression in the newspaper and other articles. In this article, I surveyed a previous studies on the expression “According to me”. Though we can not use this expression in the normal context, we sometimes are allowed to use it in the special situation. Through the observation of the examples, I found that “contrast” is the essential factor of accepting the usage of “according to me”

Monodisperse polylactide microcapsules with a single aqueous core prepared via spontaneous emulsification and solvent diffusion

A simple approach to preparing monodisperse poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLLA) microcapsules with a single aqueous core is developed. The method is based on automatic water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion formation from oil-in-water single emulsion via spontaneous emulsification which voluntarily disperses part of continuous aqueous phase into the dispersed oil phase dissolving oil-soluble amphiphilic diblock copolymer, poly(D,L-lactide)-b-poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacylate)(PDLLA-b-PDMAEMA), followed by coalescence of tiny water droplets within the polymer droplets, coupled with quick precipitation of polymers by diluting the emulsion with water. In this study, we have investigated the effect of PDLLA to PDLLA-b-PDMAEMA ratios and flow rates of each solution during preparing the emulsion on the final morphology and the size of the microcapsules. It was found that the polymer blend ratio played a crucial role in determining internal structure of the microcapsules. The microcapsules size decreased with the increment of the flow rate ratios of the continuous phase to the dispersed phase and eventually reached 10 μm, while maintaining narrow size distribution. In addition, we have demonstrated that the microcapsules can encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds during the formation