Baringo apis Bee Honey: Nutritional, Physicochemical, Phytochemical and Antibacterial Properties Validation Against Wound Bacterial Isolates

Skin wounds are a global public health concern demanding significant resources from the healthcare system. Their consequences include pain, social, physical or psychological impact. Hence the right approach to its management should be considered. This is towards reducing the economic burden while lowering morbidity and mortality through developing new preventive and therapeutic technologies.Bee (Apis) honey samples were collected from their beehives in Marigat Sub County, Baringo County, Kenya, followed by quantitative analysis of physicochemical, nutritive, phytochemical and antioxidant properties contributing to its antibacterial capacity. Different concentrations of honey (10x104, 20x104, 50x104 and 75x104 µg/ml)) in impregnated discs were tested against each type of clinical isolates obtained from wound swabs collected from Nakuru County Referral Hospital Nakuru, as indicated in the previous study on Stingless bee honey analysis. The bacterial isolates obtained included; Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. Their individual antibacterial inhibition was then compared to cartridges containing antibiotics (Levofloxacin 5μg, Ampicillin 10μg, Tazobactam 110 μg, Meropenem 10μg, Gentamicin 10μg and Chloramphenicol 30μg) through disc diffusion (Kirby-Bauer) technique.According to this study, quantitative analysis of the honey samples yielded 90.13 ± 5.76g/100g, 4.07 ± 0.08 and 114.28 ± 26.66 mg/g in sugar, pH and moisture, respectively. The phenolic compounds that act as antioxidants were in the mean value of total phenolic compounds (80.81 ± 36.25mgGAE/100g), total flavonoids (21.83 ± 6.16 mg RE/100g) and total carotenoids (4.41 ± 2.07 mgβ –carotene/kg). These and other components contributed to the honey's antibacterial inhibition with a mean range of 14.54 ± 2.0mm to 17.58 ± 3mm, which was relatively higher than the antibiotics used (Gentamycin, Levofloxacin, Ampicillin, Tazobactum, Meropenem and Chloramphenicol). Control bacterial isolates ATCC 25923, ATCC 25922, ATCC 27736 and ATCC 27858 for Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively, enhanced the standard in the analysis. The potency of honey from different botanical sources reveals important antimicrobial differences comparable to local antibiotics.Over and indiscriminate use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, a global public health problem. Alternative antimicrobial strategies like plants and plant-based products such as honey need to be given more attention to solving this challenge. Hence the present study demonstrates that the composition of honey from honey bees (Apis) enables it to be proposed for prophylaxis and treatment of surface infections, which has traditionally been practiced in the management of wounds and burns. DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/105-01 Publication date: January 31st 202

FRANCHISING PROPENSITY AND FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF FRANCHISING ORGANISATIONS: A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

ABSTRACT Purpose - This paper investigates the relationship between franchising propensity and financial performance of franchising organisations and explores literature on possible intervening and moderating factors on the relationship. Methodology - This is a critical review of theoretical and empirical literature on franchising propensity and financial performance. Findings - Literature reveals that most studies on franchising focus on the antecedents of franchising but very few examine the consequences moreover, the studies are anchored on either agency theory or resource scarcity theory. Studies examining the relationship between franchising and performance provide conflicting results. Some studies indicate that increasing the number of franchised units result to superior performance while other studies find no significant difference between franchising and running company owned units. The effect of franchising on capital structure of the franchisor has been examined by a few studies with no conclusive results. Furthermore, prior studies indicate that the relationship between franchising and performance is influenced by firm characteristics. There is a dearth of studies examining franchising in sectors other than the restaurant industry moreover there is need to use time series data to observe the consequences of franchising over time. Implications: This review of literature mainly consists of studies carried out in developed economies which have superior business models and access to finance. Developing economies are mostly supported by small and medium enterprises and lack the skills and resources similar to advanced economies. Therefore, although developing economies stand to benefit more from the franchising model, there are few studies carried out in developing economies. Therefore, the findings of this study may vary in the developing economies. Value: This study has presented a new dimension that may explain the inconsistent findings from prior studies and contribute to the discussion of franchising and firm performance. The relationship between franchising and firm performance may be moderated by firm characteristics and mediated by capital structure

Helminth Infection and Eosinophilia and the Risk of Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in 1- to 6-Year-Old Children in a Malaria Endemic Area

Malaria infection and other parasitic infections are widespread in developing countries. There is evidence from some studies that intestinal worm infections may increase the risk of developing febrile malaria. However, the evidence is mixed, and some studies have found no effect or even protective effects. A vaccine trial was recently conducted to assess the efficacy of a candidate malaria vaccine. Episodes of malaria were monitored. The vaccine was not protective, but data was also recorded on the prevalence of worm infections. The rates of febrile malaria did not seem to vary according to worm infection in this study. However, because of the relatively low prevalence of worm infection, the study did not have high power. Given the conflicting findings in the literature, and the potential for the effect of worm infection to vary geographically, it is important that larger, definitive studies are conducted, since even quite small effects might be important for global public health

Heritability of Malaria in Africa

BACKGROUND: While many individual genes have been identified that confer protection against malaria, the overall impact of host genetics on malarial risk remains unknown. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We have used pedigree-based genetic variance component analysis to determine the relative contributions of genetic and other factors to the variability in incidence of malaria and other infectious diseases in two cohorts of children living on the coast of Kenya. In the first, we monitored the incidence of mild clinical malaria and other febrile diseases through active surveillance of 640 children 10 y old or younger, living in 77 different households for an average of 2.7 y. In the second, we recorded hospital admissions with malaria and other infectious diseases in a birth cohort of 2,914 children for an average of 4.1 y. Mean annual incidence rates for mild and hospital-admitted malaria were 1.6 and 0.054 episodes per person per year, respectively. Twenty-four percent and 25% of the total variation in these outcomes was explained by additively acting host genes, and household explained a further 29% and 14%, respectively. The haemoglobin S gene explained only 2% of the total variation. For nonmalarial infections, additive genetics explained 39% and 13% of the variability in fevers and hospital-admitted infections, while household explained a further 9% and 30%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Genetic and unidentified household factors each accounted for around one quarter of the total variability in malaria incidence in our study population. The genetic effect was well beyond that explained by the anticipated effects of the haemoglobinopathies alone, suggesting the existence of many protective genes, each individually resulting in small population effects. While studying these genes may well provide insights into pathogenesis and resistance in human malaria, identifying and tackling the household effects must be the more efficient route to reducing the burden of disease in malaria-endemic areas

An Immune Basis for Malaria Protection by the Sickle Cell Trait

BACKGROUND: Malaria resistance by the sickle cell trait (genotype HbAS) has served as the prime example of genetic selection for over half a century. Nevertheless, the mechanism of this resistance remains the subject of considerable debate. While it probably involves innate factors such as the reduced ability of Plasmodium falciparum parasites to grow and multiply in HbAS erythrocytes, recent observations suggest that it might also involve the accelerated acquisition of malaria-specific immunity. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We studied the age-specific protection afforded by HbAS against clinical malaria in children living on the coast of Kenya. We found that protection increased with age from only 20% in the first 2 y of life to a maximum of 56% by the age of 10 y, returning thereafter to 30% in participants greater than 10 y old. CONCLUSIONS: Our observations suggest that malaria protection by HbAS involves the enhancement of not only innate but also of acquired immunity to the parasite. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms might yield important insights into both these processes

Acquisition of naturally occurring antibody responses to recombinant protein domains of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1

Background: Antibodies targeting variant antigens expressed on the surface of Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes have been associated with protection from clinical malaria. The precise target for these antibodies is unknown. The best characterized and most likely target is the erythrocyte surface-expressed variant protein family Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1). Methods: Using recombinant proteins corresponding to five domains of the expressed A4 var gene, A4 PfEMP1, the naturally occurring antibody response was assessed, by ELISA, to each domain in serum samples obtained from individuals resident in two communities of differing malaria transmission intensity on the Kenyan coast. Using flow cytometry, the correlation in individual responses to each domain with responses to intact A4-infected erythrocytes expressing A4 PfEMP1 on their surface as well as responses to two alternative parasite clones and one clinical isolate was assessed. Results: Marked variability in the prevalence of responses between each domain and between each transmission area was observed, as wasa strong correlation between age and reactivity with some but not all domains. Individual responses to each domain varied strikingly, with some individuals showing reactivity to all domains and others with no reactivity to any, this was apparent at all age groups. Evidence for possible cross-reactivity in responses to the domain DBL4γ was found. Conclusion: Individuals acquire antibodies to surface expressed domains of a highly variant protein. The finding of potential cross-reactivity in responses to one of these domains is an important initial finding in the consideration of potential vaccine targets

Factors Hindering Credit Disbursement to Women by Deposit Taking Micro-Finance Institutions in Machakos Town

A Research Project Report Submitted to the Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration (MBA)The purpose of the study was to determine the factors hindering women from accessing credit facilities offered by micro-finance institutions. The research was guided by the research questions as follows: How do institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks affect access to credit by women in Kenya? How do socio-cultural factors affect access to credit by women in Kenya? What strategies can be adopted by financial institutions in Kenya to enhance access of credit by women? The study was conducted in Machakos, Kenya as an emerging market where a descriptive research design was adopted. The study population consisted of 4 Deposit Taking Micro Finance Institutions (DTMFIs). A total of 55 respondents who are the employees of various DTMFIs within Machakos were issued with structured questionnaires. After all the data was collected, data cleaning was carried out and analyzed using quantitative techniques. Graphs, tables and pie charts were used to present frequencies and percentage while tables were prepared using each variable or indicator. The study findings revealed that there exists a significant relationship between institutional, legal and regulatory framework and women access to finance. The study also revealed that there is a positive significant relationship between socio cultural factors and women access to credit in Kenya. This implies that indeed women access to credit in Kenya is largely influenced by socio cultural factors. The study further established that the following strategies have been used by Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) to enhance access to credit by women. These strategies include eencouraging group formation, investing in marketing activities including advertising, personal selling, continuous innovation and development of new products, networking and collaborating with other DTMFIs to capitalize on operational synergies, unchanging product portfolio, easing the process of account opening will attract more women to seek credit, research and development will help introduce new products which will attract more women seeking credit and finally encouraging Insider Lending and Client Education will avail more funds for women seeking credit. The study recommends the need for MFIs to act in a manner that ensures that indeed the collection of data relating to women ventures as well as the creation of gender- sensitive indicators which can easily be accessed while also be used when it comes to information on the new initiatives notwithstanding the assessment as well as monitoring and evaluation of the progress made. Additionally it is important for MFIs to promote collaboration across sectors working when it comes to integrating a gender- sensitive approach in their work, in order to create a platform that enables them to share data, experiences and lessons learned, making these efforts smoother, stronger and sustainable. The study further recommends that people need to be encouraged to be able learn how to write business proposal so as to be able to access credit. A study focusing on the MFI sector where very high levels of diversity are likely to be experienced would bring out a new dimension on the factors hindering women access to credit. Future studies may also cross-sectional research design for firms in other sectors of the economy which would further add value in understanding of the concept under study

Contrasting signatures of selection on the Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte binding antigen gene family.

Erythrocyte binding antigens of Plasmodium falciparum are involved in erythrocyte invasion, and may be targets of acquired immunity. Of the five eba genes, protein products have been detected for eba-175, eba-181 and eba-140, but not for psieba-165 or ebl-1, providing opportunity for comparative analysis of genetic variation to identify selection. Region II of each of these genes was sequenced from a cross-sectional sample of parasites in an endemic Kenyan population, and the frequency distributions of polymorphisms analysed. A positive value of Tajima's D was observed for eba-175 (D=1.13) indicating an excess of intermediate frequency polymorphisms, while all other genes had negative values, the most negative being ebl-1 (D=-2.35) followed by psieba-165 (D=-1.79). The eba-175 and ebl-1 genes were then studied in a sample of parasites from Thailand, for which a positive Tajima's D value was again observed for eba-175 (D=1.79), and a negative value for ebl-1 (D=-1.85). This indicates that eba-175 is under balancing selection in each population, in strong contrast to the other members of the gene family, particularly ebl-1 and psieba-165 that may have been under recent directional selection. Population expansion simulations were performed under a neutral model, further supporting the departures from neutrality of these genes

Transmission-dependent tolerance to multiclonal Plasmodium falciparum infection.

Whether the number of concurrent clones in asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum infections reflects the degree of host protection was investigated in children living in areas with different levels of transmission on the coast of Kenya. The number of concurrent clones was determined on the basis of polymorphism in msp2, which encodes the vaccine candidate antigen merozoite surface protein 2. In a low-transmission area, most children had monoclonal infections, and diversity did not predict a risk of clinical malaria. In an area of moderate transmission, asymptomatic infections with 2 clones were, compared with 1 clone, associated with an increased risk of subsequent malaria. In a comparative assessment in a high-transmission area in Tanzania, multiclonal infections conferred a reduced risk. The different nonlinear associations between the number of clones and malaria morbidity suggest that levels of tolerance to multiclonal infections are transmission dependent as a result of cumulative exposure to antigenically diverse P. falciparum infections

High levels of serum antibodies to merozoite surface protein 2 of Plasmodium falciparum are associated with reduced risk of clinical malaria in coastal Kenya.

The merozoite surface protein (MSP) 2 is a vaccine candidate antigen of Plasmodium falciparum that is polymorphic in natural populations. In a prospective cohort study in two coastal populations of Kenya using recombinant proteins derived from the two major allelic types of MSP2, high serum levels of IgG to MSP2 were associated with protection from clinical malaria. This protection was independent of that associated with antibodies to another vaccine candidate antigen (AMA1) in these populations. However, low antibody levels to MSP2 appeared to be associated with increased susceptibility to malaria within people who were parasite negative at the time of serum collection. These data suggest that an MSP2 based vaccine should be designed to induce high level antibody responses against the different MSP2 types present globally in P. falciparum populations and that MSP2 could be combined with other P. falciparum antigens to form a multi-component malaria vaccine