Forests planted for ecosystem restoration or conservation

Abstract. Although the phrase, "'planting for ecosystem restoration, " is of recent origin, many of the earliest large-scale tree plantings were made for what we now refer to as "'restoration" or "conservation " goals. Forest restoration activities may be needed when ecosystems are disturbed by either natural or anthropogenic forces. Disturbances can impact (1) basic components of the system (e.g., plant and animal composition, soil pools, and atmospheric pools), (2) ecosystem processes, i.e., interactions among basic components, or (3) both components and processes. Early efforts at restoration or site rehabilitation focused primarily on reducing off-site impacts, such as sediment introduced into streams from ecosystems that had been severely disturbed. More recent restoration programs include ecosystems in which only some of the components are missing or some of the processes have been impacted. Restoration activities can begin immediately after the disturbance has ended. Although forest restoration projects can include many activities, planting is almost always a key component. When planning an ecosystem restoration project, land managers need to be aware that commonly used plant establishment and management procedures may need to be altered to meet project objectives. Some systems may have been so severely impacted that ameliorativ