The Entrapment Defense - What Hath the Model Penal Code Wrought?

The defense of entrapment is unique since the defendant necessarily concedes the commission of a criminal offense. After discussing the opposing theories of entrapment, the author analyzes the Model Penal Code\u27s standards of entrapment as recently adopted by Pennsylvania

The Exclusionary Rule—The Illusion vs. the Reality

Exclusionary Rul

Presumptions in Criminal Cases: A New Look at an Old Problem

Presumptions in Criminal Case

Fate of conjugated natural and synthetic steroid estrogens in crude sewage and activated sludge batch studies

This document is the unedited author's version of a Submitted Work that was subsequently accepted for publication in Environmental Science & Technology, copyright © American Chemical Society after peer review. To access the final edited and published work see http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es801952h.Steroids are excreted from the human body in the conjugated form but are present in sewage influent and effluent as the free steroid, the major source of estrogenic activity observed in water courses. The fate of sulfate and glucuronide conjugated steroid estrogens was investigated in batch studies using activated sludge grown on synthetic sewage in a laboratory-scale Husmann simulation and crude sewage from the field. A clear distinction between the fate of sulfate and glucuronide conjugates was observed in both matrices, with sulfated conjugates proving more recalcitrant and glucuronide deconjugation preferential in crude sewage. For each conjugate, the free steroid was observed in the biotic samples. The degree of free steroid formation was dependent on the conjugate moiety, favoring the glucuronide. Subsequent degradation of the free steroid (and sorption to the activated sludge solid phase) was evaluated. Deconjugation followed the first order reaction rate with rate constants for 17α-ethinylestradiol 3-glucuronide, estriol 16α-glucuronide, and estrone 3-glucuronide determined as 0.32, 0.24, and 0.35 h respectively. The activated sludge solid retention time over the range of 3−9 days had 74 to 94% of sulfate conjugates remaining after 8 h. In contrast, a correlation between increasing temperature and decreasing 17α-ethinylestradiol 3-glucuronide concentrations in the activated sludge observed no conjugate present in the AS following 8 h at 22 °C Based on these batch studies and literature excretion profiles, a hypothesis is presented on which steroids and what form (glucuronide, sulfate, or free) will likely enter the sewage treatment plant.EPSR

Simultaneous determination of natural and synthetic steroid estrogens and their conjugates in aqueous matrices by liquid chromatography / mass spectrometry

An analytical method for the simultaneous determination of nine free and conjugated steroid estrogens was developed with application to environmental aqueous matrices. Solid phase extraction (SPE) was employed for isolation and concentration, with detection by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) using electrospray ionisation (ESI) in the negative mode. Method recoveries for various aqueous matrices (wastewater, lake and drinking water) were determined, recoveries proving to be sample dependent. When spiked at 50 ng/l concentrations in sewage influent, recoveries ranged from 62-89 % with relative standard deviations (RSD) < 8.1 %. In comparison, drinking water spiked at the same concentrations had recoveries between 82-100 % with an RSD < 5%. Ion suppression is a known phenomenon when using ESI; hence its impact on method recovery was elucidated for raw sewage. Both ion suppression from matrix interferences and the extraction procedure has bearing on the overall method recovery. Analysis of municipal raw sewage identified several of the analytes of interest at ng/l concentrations, estriol (E3) being the most abundant. Only one conjugate, estrone 3-sulphate (E1-3S) was observe

Trends and Correlates of Hookah Use Among High School Students in North Carolina

OBJECTIVES Although youth cigarette smoking has declined in the United States, use of alternative tobacco products, such as hookah, has increased. This study assesses changes in prevalence of use from 2011 to 2013, and examines factors associated with current hookah use among North Carolina high school students in 2013.METHODS Data came from the North Carolina Youth Tobacco Survey in 2011 (n = 4,791) and 2013 (n = 4,092). STATA (StataCorp LLC) logistic regression survey procedures account for the complex survey design and sampling weights.RESULTS Prevalence of reported current hookah use significantly increased from 3.6% (95% CI: 2.8-4.5) in 2011 to 6.1% (95% CI: 4.9-7.5) in 2013 while reported lifetime hookah use increased from 9.8% (95% CI: 8.0-12.0) in 2011 to 12.6% (95% CI: 11.0-14.4) in 2013. Correlates of current hookah use included having a weekly disposable income over $50 (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.05, 95% CI: 1.25-3.35), currently smoking cigarettes (AOR = 4.57, 95% CI: 1.80-11.62), and living with hookah users (AOR = 6.45, 95% CI: 3.21-12.93). Participant self-reports of "liking" or positively commenting on tobacco products on social media were associated with current hookah use (AOR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.84-4.52). Frequent exposure to online tobacco advertisements (AOR = 1.61, 95% CI: 1.13-2.28) were also associated with current hookah use.CONCLUSIONS Comprehensive product specific communication and policy interventions are needed to educate youth about the dangers of hookah use and reduce social acceptability among youth. To decrease hookah use in North Carolina, policymakers should consider restoring funding for comprehensive tobacco prevention and control programs, and equalizing tobacco tax rates for all tobacco product types

Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa

Background: Clinical trials undertaken by industrialized nations in undeveloped nations pose several critical ethical dilemmas. One key potential problem concerns misunderstandings of the consent process by participants. Though other reports have begun to explore this area, needs remain to identify specific areas of misunderstanding. Purpose: To identify deficits in comprehension during consent processes in Mali, West Africa. Methods: After obtaining informed consent for participation for a malaria vaccine trial being conducted in two West African villages, we administered to participants a nine-item questionnaire testing their understanding of information relevant for their consent. After testing their ability to understand a multiple choice format, 78 of 100 subjects were administered the questionnaire in one village and 85 of 100 in the other. Results: Participants had difficulty comprehending several concepts relevant to informed consent: 90% of respondents did not understand withdrawal criterion, 93% did not understand the existence of study side effects, and 74% did not understand that they were enrolled in an investigation as opposed to receiving therapy. The response rate and percentage of correct answers was generally much higher in the village nearer an urban center than the more rural village. The percent of correct answers exceeded 50% for five questions in the urban village and for only two question in the more rural setting. Limitations: Potential limitations of this study are relating to translation, cultural differences in the notion of informed consent, staff differences between each village, the proportion who could not understand the survey instrument and the fact that the study explored participants’ understanding of the consent process but did not observe the process itself. Conclusions: This study illustrates potential areas of miscomprehension in the consent process in a developing country. The degree of miscomprehension found in this study appeared to be more than that found in similar studies conducted in industrialized nations. Despite efforts to obtain truly informed consent, several factors make it more challenging in the developing world. This research highlights the need for more comprehensive studies of consent in developing countries. Such studies may eventually aid investigators in identifying, targeting and addressing specific areas of miscomprehension and thereby improve the informed consent process in the developing world