Aging and gender in Tanzania:Uncovering the cultural schemas, nexus of identities and the Aging Body

De betekenissen die aan veroudering worden toegeschreven, zijn cultuurspecifieke en gendergerelateerde constructies. Deze doctoraatsthesis verschaft nieuwe kennis over de culturele aspecten van oudere Tanzanianen, over hun ervaring met het ouder worden en over hun genderidentiteit op latere leeftijd. Een gefundeerde theorie benadering werd gebruikt om de opkomende thema’s te analyseren. Gegevens werden verzameld via diepgaande interviews en focusgroep-discussies waarbij zowel oudere mannen als vrouwen in Tanzania betrokken waren. Bevindingen wijzen erop dat mensen worden verworven en geïnternaliseerd op jonge leeftijd door culturele aspecten (zoals culturele schema’s, scripts en habitus) en culturele socialisatie activiteiten in het latere leven, hun gedachten, perceptie en gedrag vormgeeft. De bevindingen onthullen specifiek dat oudere volwassenen in deze studie het heersende culturele schema of intergenerationele zorg gebruiken om hun zorgbehoeften en -ervaringen te interpreteren. Het blijkt ook dat gender-prestaties veranderen door de leeftijdsgerelateerde achteruitgang van het lichaam, dat is de drijvende factor voor ‘het doen van gender’, evenals een lage sociaaleconomische status. De bevindingen tonen aan dat het aannemen van gender-getypeerde rollen een belangrijke factor speelt in de vorm van status, respect en macht. De discrepantie tussen de ervaringen van veroudering en de geïnternaliseerde biologische aspecten van de processen van zelf-identificatie voor ouderen, en niveaus van emotionele stress kunnen hun welzijn bedreigen.The meanings attributed to aging are culture-specific and gender-related constructions. This PhD thesis provides new knowledge about the cultural aspects of older Tanzanians’ interpretations of their aging experiences and gender identities in later life. Grounded theory approach was used to analyse emerging themes. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions involving both men and women in Tanzania. Findings indicate that cultural aspects (such as cultural schemas, scripts and habitus) that older people acquired and internalised in their early cultural socialization actively functions in later life, moulding their perceptions and thoughts and shaping their behaviours. Specifically, the findings reveal that older adults in this study used the prevailing cultural schema of intergenerational caregiving to interpret their care needs and experiences. It also emerged that gender performances are altered by the age-related decline in the body, given that the body is the vehicle for ‘doing gender’ as well as for survival, especially for women and men of a low socio-economic status. The findings show that engaging in gender-typed roles is important to older women and men in order to retain their gendered ‘symbolic capital’ in the form of status, respect, and power. The discrepancy between the experiences of aging and the internalised cultural aspects affected the older adults’ processes of self-identification, and resulted in levels of emotional distress that threatened their wellbeing. Furthermore, this thesis makes a number of social policy recommendations, including the importance of promoting interventions that are tailored to their cultural and socioeconomic contexts

“It's all about being a woman”: Intersections of multiple (dis)advantages experienced by older women in Tanzania

Across the world, the experiences of women in later life vary enormously, not only along intersectional lines, but also due to cumulative (dis)advantages over an individual’s life course. The current study explores how early-life structural (dis)advantages experienced by older African women (particularly experiences related to economic adversity and the social disadvantages that often accompany it) shape their later life experiences and agency. The life stories used in this paper emerged from a larger qualitative study of aging and gender identities in Tanzania based on fifteen (15) in-depth interviews and ten (10) focus group discussions with women 60 to 82 years old. Analyzing the data from an intersectional perspective and life course approach demonstrated that older women’s situations area result of the complex interaction of various structural and individual factors, and that timing is crucial for exercising agency. The findings also revealed that as a result of gender norms, the majority of older Tanzanian women were vulnerable to discrimination, poverty, and violence. The norms that promote gender discrimination also limit women’s agency and social functioning subject to the constraints imposed. To help protect older women against discrimination and violence, gender-sensitive policies, social programs and legal reforms are critical for speed up the pace of change and foster permanent shifts in harmful gender norms so that aging experiences are no longer all about being a woman

“It's all about being a woman”: Intersections of multiple (dis)advantages experienced by older women in Tanzania

Across the world, the experiences of women in later life vary enormously, not only along intersectional lines, but also due to cumulative (dis)advantages over an individual’s life course. The current study explores how early-life structural (dis)advantages experienced by older African women (particularly experiences related to economic adversity and the social disadvantages that often accompany it) shape their later life experiences and agency. The life stories used in this paper emerged from a larger qualitative study of aging and gender identities in Tanzania based on fifteen (15) in-depth interviews and ten (10) focus group discussions with women 60 to 82 years old. Analyzing the data from an intersectional perspective and life course approach demonstrated that older women’s situations area result of the complex interaction of various structural and individual factors, and that timing is crucial for exercising agency. The findings also revealed that as a result of gender norms, the majority of older Tanzanian women were vulnerable to discrimination, poverty, and violence. The norms that promote gender discrimination also limit women’s agency and social functioning subject to the constraints imposed. To help protect older women against discrimination and violence, gender-sensitive policies, social programs and legal reforms are critical for speed up the pace of change and foster permanent shifts in harmful gender norms so that aging experiences are no longer all about being a woman

"The Heart Desires but the Body Refuses”: Sexual Scripts, Older Men’s Perceptions of Sexuality, and Implications for Their Mental and Sexual Health

We use sexual scripting theory in the present paper to gain a better understanding of older men’s perceptions of their sexuality in relation to dominant Tanzanian cultural norms of masculinity. Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with 15 older men, and ten focus group discussions were conducted with 60 men aged 60–82. Participants’ recruitment was guided by theoretical sampling strategies. Consistent with the principles of grounded theory, data collection and analysis occurred simultaneously. Our findings indicate that Jando (male initiation rites) serves as a script for male sexuality that outlines the expectations and rewards of male sexuality. Adhering to masculine sexual script affects older men’s perceptions of their sexuality in later life and has detrimental effects on their well-being. Older men were concerned with changes in their sexual life, such as the decline in their sexual performance. The majority of the participants said they felt emotionally distressed about the age-related decline in their body and in their sexuality, and they reported that their inability to conform to male sexual scripts undermined their sense of masculinity. Several of the participants reported that in an effort to regain their previous sexual performance, they had turned to remedies and strategies of questionable appropriateness and effectiveness. Our study suggests that older men may benefit from age-related interventions tailored to their cultural background. These interventions may require trained health care providers on mental health issues to bridge the gap between the internalized scripts of ideal male sexuality and the reality of aging

“We Never Graduate from Care Giving Roles”; Cultural Schemas for Intergenerational Care Role Among Older Adults in Tanzania

This paper examines the cultural schemas underlying older persons’ perception of intergenerational care roles. Thirty qualitative in-depth interviews and twenty focus group discussions (N = 120) were conducted among older women and men aged 60 and above. By using this theory, we were able to identify a series of cultural schemas found in older people’s discussions of intergenerational caregiving role. The most prominent shared schemas are; caregiving for elderly is a cultural obligation not a choice, caregiving is a sign of respect, caregiving is a sign of love, caregiving is a source of pride, and caregiving leads to attachment and emotional bonds. Based on these schemas, older people perceived getting care from one’s children as a cultural obligation and not an individual (child) choice. However, the findings show that older people’s life experience differed greatly from the cultural schemas they had as majority were not cared for by their children. Thus, the discrepancies between schemas/expectations and realities of older people led to tension, sadness, frustration and feeling of being neglected. This study suggests that there is need to put in place interventions that encourage intergenerational caregiving. These intervention programmes should seek not only to consider but also to build upon the strength of cultural values and beliefs

“We Never Graduate from Care Giving Roles”; Cultural Schemas for Intergenerational Care Role Among Older Adults in Tanzania

This paper examines the cultural schemas underlying older persons’ perception of intergenerational care roles. Thirty qualitative in-depth interviews and twenty focus group discussions (N = 120) were conducted among older women and men aged 60 and above. By using this theory, we were able to identify a series of cultural schemas found in older people’s discussions of intergenerational caregiving role. The most prominent shared schemas are; caregiving for elderly is a cultural obligation not a choice, caregiving is a sign of respect, caregiving is a sign of love, caregiving is a source of pride, and caregiving leads to attachment and emotional bonds. Based on these schemas, older people perceived getting care from one’s children as a cultural obligation and not an individual (child) choice. However, the findings show that older people’s life experience differed greatly from the cultural schemas they had as majority were not cared for by their children. Thus, the discrepancies between schemas/expectations and realities of older people led to tension, sadness, frustration and feeling of being neglected. This study suggests that there is need to put in place interventions that encourage intergenerational caregiving. These intervention programmes should seek not only to consider but also to build upon the strength of cultural values and beliefs

“It's all about being a woman”: Intersections of multiple (dis)advantages experienced by older women in Tanzania

Across the world, the experiences of women in later life vary enormously, not only along intersectional lines, but also due to cumulative (dis)advantages over an individual’s life course. The current study explores how early-life structural (dis)advantages experienced by older African women (particularly experiences related to economic adversity and the social disadvantages that often accompany it) shape their later life experiences and agency. The life stories used in this paper emerged from a larger qualitative study of aging and gender identities in Tanzania based on fifteen (15) in-depth interviews and ten (10) focus group discussions with women 60 to 82 years old. Analyzing the data from an intersectional perspective and life course approach demonstrated that older women’s situations area result of the complex interaction of various structural and individual factors, and that timing is crucial for exercising agency. The findings also revealed that as a result of gender norms, the majority of older Tanzanian women were vulnerable to discrimination, poverty, and violence. The norms that promote gender discrimination also limit women’s agency and social functioning subject to the constraints imposed. To help protect older women against discrimination and violence, gender-sensitive policies, social programs and legal reforms are critical for speed up the pace of change and foster permanent shifts in harmful gender norms so that aging experiences are no longer all about being a woman

“It's all about being a woman”: Intersections of multiple (dis)advantages experienced by older women in Tanzania

Across the world, the experiences of women in later life vary enormously, not only along intersectional lines, but also due to cumulative (dis)advantages over an individual’s life course. The current study explores how early-life structural (dis)advantages experienced by older African women (particularly experiences related to economic adversity and the social disadvantages that often accompany it) shape their later life experiences and agency. The life stories used in this paper emerged from a larger qualitative study of aging and gender identities in Tanzania based on fifteen (15) in-depth interviews and ten (10) focus group discussions with women 60 to 82 years old. Analyzing the data from an intersectional perspective and life course approach demonstrated that older women’s situations area result of the complex interaction of various structural and individual factors, and that timing is crucial for exercising agency. The findings also revealed that as a result of gender norms, the majority of older Tanzanian women were vulnerable to discrimination, poverty, and violence. The norms that promote gender discrimination also limit women’s agency and social functioning subject to the constraints imposed. To help protect older women against discrimination and violence, gender-sensitive policies, social programs and legal reforms are critical for speed up the pace of change and foster permanent shifts in harmful gender norms so that aging experiences are no longer all about being a woman