How substitutable is natural capital ?

One of the recurring themes in the sustainability literature has been the legitimacy of using an economic framework to account for natural resources. This paper examines the potential for substituting between different inputs in the generation of income, where the inputs include natural resources such as land and energy resources. A nested constant elasticity of substitution (CES) production function is used to allow flexibility in the estimated elasticities of substitution. Also, with this specification, natural resources and other inputs are combined in different levels of the function, thus allowing for different levels of substitutability. Institutional and economic indicators are also incorporated in the production function estimated. Results show that the elasticities derived from functions involving land resources were generally around one or greater, implying a fairly high degree of substitutability. Furthermore, changes in trade openness and private sector investment have a statistically significant and direct relationship with income generation. No statistically significant relationship between income and any of the institutional indicators was found.Economic Theory&Research,Inequality,Economic Growth,Banks&Banking Reform,Climate Change

Empirical Analysis of National Income and So2 Emissions in Selected European Countries

Data on GDP per capita and sulfur emissions for twelve European countries were analyzed to determine the relationship between emissions and income in these countries. As a whole, the relationship between sulfur emissions and per capita income is a fourth order polynomial and not a quadratic one as found in most studies. When countries were examined individually, seven out of the twelve countries depicted the same relationship. Looking closely at the regulations restricting sulfur emissions in the UK, the impact of all regulations supported the inverted U-shaped Kuznets curve. Individually, however, it is found that only two regulations have statistically significant impacts: Smoke Abatement Act in 1926 (reduced the amount of sulfur associated with a given level of GDP); and Clean Air Act in 1956 (increased the amount of sulfur emissions associated with a given level of GDP).Environmental Kuznet’s Curve, Europe, Sulfur dioxide emission

Energy Efficiency in Transition Economies: Is There Convergence Towards the EU Average?

This paper investigates the relationship between energy intensity in the 12 countries of Eastern Europe that can be considered as in transition to a full market economy, and that of the present EU members. The raw data shows some evidence of convergence, and a carefully estimated econometric model of lagged adjustment confirms this. On average, a 1% decrease in the per capita income gap between developed and transition economies leads to a decrease in the energy intensity growth rate of a transition country by 0.7%. There are differences in the rate of convergence across countries, and these depend on two parameters that are allowed to vary across countries: ?, the elasticity of desired energy intensity with respect to the per capita income gap; and µ, the rate at which actual energy intensity adjusts to the desired energy intensity. The countries with the fastest convergence rates given these parameters are the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Croatia and Turkey. The forecast values for energy intensity and actual energy demand levels of seven transition countries were estimated. Results show that the energy intensities of transition countries except Estonia converge to EU levels significantly. On the other hand, actual energy demand levels between 2000 and 2020 show an increasing demand in all 7 countries despite the reductions in energy intensity. Therefore, it will not be feasible to use as a target a non-increasing level of total energy consumption.Energy, Convergence, Transition

2022 cost estimates of establishing and producing organic 'Duke' blueberries in Eastern Washington

The results presented in this WSU publication serve as a general guide for evaluating the feasibility of producing organic 'Duke' blueberries in eastern Washington in 2022. The primary use of this publication is in identifying inputs, costs, and yields considered typical of well-managed 'Duke' blueberry fields. This publication is not intended to be a definitive guide to production practices, but it is helpful in estimating the physical and financial requirements of comparable plantings. Cost estimations in the enterprise budget also vary depending on its intended use. To avoid drawing unwarranted conclusions about any particular farm, readers must closely examine the assumptions made in this guide and then adjust the costs, returns, or both as appropriate for their farm operation

2020 estimated costs of establishing and producing conventional and organic hops in the Pacific Northwest

The results presented in this WSU publication serve as a general guide for evaluating the feasibility of establishing and producing conventional and organic hops in the Pacific Northwest as of 2020, with a capital and machinery endowment suited to a 660-acre hop enterprise. This publication is not intended to be a definitive guide to production practices but is helpful in estimating the physical and financial requirements of comparable plantings. To avoid drawing unwarranted conclusions for any particular farm, readers must closely examine the assumptions made in this guide and then adjust the costs, returns, or both as appropriate for their own hop operation

2021-2022 cost estimates of establishing, producing, and packing Skeena sweet cherries in Washington State

The results presented in this publication serve as a general guide for evaluating the feasibility of producing Skeena sweet cherries in Washington State in 2021-2022. This publication is not intended to be a definitive guide to production practices, but is intended to be helpful in estimating the physical and financial requirements of comparable plantings. To avoid drawing unwarranted conclusions for any particular orchard, readers must closely examine the assumptions made in this guide, and then adjust the costs, returns, or both as appropriate for their own orchard operation

2021-2022 cost estimates of establishing, producing, and packing Chelan sweet cherries in Washington State

The results presented in this WSU publication serve as a general guide for evaluating the feasibility of producing Chelan sweet cherries in Washington State in 2021-2022. This publication is not intended to be a definitive guide to production practices, but is intended to be helpful in estimating the physical and financial requirements of comparable plantings. To avoid drawing unwarranted conclusions for any particular orchard, readers must closely examine the assumptions made in this guide, and then adjust the costs, returns, or both as appropriate for their own orchard operation

2022 cost estimates of producing and packing organic Honeycrisp apples in Washington

The results presented in this WSU publication serve as a general guide for evaluating the feasibility of producing organic Honeycrisp apples in Washington in 2022. The primary use of this publication is in identifying inputs, costs, and yields considered typical of well-managed organic Honeycrisp apple orchards. This publication is not intended to be a definitive guide to production practices, but it is intended to be helpful in estimating the physical and financial requirements of comparable plantings. Cost estimations in the enterprise budget also vary depending on its intended use. To avoid drawing unwarranted conclusions for any particular orchard, readers must closely examine the assumptions made in this guide and then adjust the costs, returns, or both as appropriate for their own orchard operation

2020 cost estimates of producing Bartlett pears for canning in Washington State

The results presented in this WSU publication serve as a general guide for evaluating the feasibility of producing Bartlett pears for canning in Washington State as of 2020. This publication is not intended to be a definitive guide to production practices, but it is helpful in estimating the physical and financial requirements of comparable plantings. To avoid drawing unwarranted conclusions for any particular orchard, readers must closely examine the assumptions made in this guide, and then adjust the costs, returns, or both as appropriate for their own orchard operation