The relative performance and consequences of protecting crowded places from vehicle borne improvised explosive devices

Crowded places have been the target of terrorist attacks for many years. Their inherent nature has resulted in a vulnerability to a range of attacks, most notably the threat of vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs). Government agendas have been seeking to reduce the extent of this vulnerability, by encouraging those who are responsible for the design, construction and operation of such places to incorporate counter-terrorism measures (CTMs) into their designs, and where necessary, retro-fit them into existing places. However, little is known about what measures can be used, as well as their performance and consequences. The aim of the research is therefore to identify the aforementioned range of measures through the development of a typology that also examines their relative performance and consequences for a range of scenarios, in order to inform key decision makers who are responsible for the protection of crowded places. Through the use of a qualitative research strategy and respective research methods, interviews, site visits and document analysis were carried out in both the UK and in the USA. A total of 47 participants were recruited for the research, with the collection of data spanning 16 months. A preliminary study was undertaken that determined a range of influences on whether crowded places are protected, as well as influences on the value of CTMs themselves. A theoretical framework was developed to capture and understand those influences. Conventional data analysis methods and internal validation techniques were used to subject the data to methodological rigour, ensuring the validity and reliability of the research. While the negative consequences of incorporating CTMs can be profound, every CTM that can be used has additional benefits; measures can be incorporated at no cost and can even generate revenue; and designing-in CTMs has a number of advantages over retro-fitting them. This research s contribution to knowledge in relation to methodology, empiricism, theory, industry, and policy has resulted in the creation of a significant amount of guidance for key decision makers who are responsible for the design, construction and operation of crowded places, as well as providing data on the benefits that can be gained from incorporating mitigative measures that is of interest to those who have a role to play in the design, construction and operation of the built environment more broadly. Recommendations for further research posit that greater understanding is needed in relation to the specific monetary costs of CTMs themselves, the experience of users of protected places, the implications of invisible CTMs, and the need for research into the assessment and incorporation of proportionality into the built environment. Practical recommendations put forward the need for clarification of legislation in relation to duties of care, the dissemination of the incentives to protect, and benefits of protecting, crowded places, the need for further debate and transparency regarding proportionality and what constitutes proportionate design, and the need to encourage greater engagement between stakeholders and the means through which this can occur. The research posits that legislative requirements encompassing the mitigation of terrorist attacks are apparent, and that therefore, organisations should incorporate CTMs into vulnerable places, yet as previously indicated, such CTMs do not have to cost anything

Understanding the relationship between resilience and sustainability: emergency planning and the design of urban space

The compatibility of, and conflict between, resilience and sustainability has received increasing attention in recent years, most notably in relation to the design, construction and operation of urban spaces. Considering that urban spaces can be fixed in time scales that range from several years to several decades and beyond, as well as the heightened influence of fiscal concerns at present and in the future, there is a need to understand and consider such interconnectivities at the earliest possible opportunity. Drawing upon ongoing research into the design of safer urban spaces, the relationship between resilience and sustainability was analysed through the exploration of whether emergency planning and the design of space could further both agendas. A state of the art literature review was conducted, as were eleven interviews with key stakeholders in the fields of emergency planning and resilience in the United Kingdom (UK). Analysis of the above provided results indicating that a range of promising practice has been occuring in the UK, practice that not only increases the resilience of urban spaces to a range of hazards, threats and major accidents, but that is integral to the sustainability of the built environment itself. However, also apparent is the impact of the current fiscal situation, including the Government‟s extensive public sector spending cuts that are threatening the progress that has been made in relation to resilience and emergency planning; impacts which emphasise the need to identify long-term incentives and cost-effective solutions to the protection of the built environment. Conclusions drawn purport that whilst resilience is integral to sustainability and not merely compatible or conducive to it, a framework is required to further understand the integrated nature of urban space and how its users are made safer, built assets can be made less vulnerable to damage, and its natural environments are more protected

Incorporating security measures into the built environment

The protection of the built environment has been given increasing attention over recent years, with physical interventions being integrated into the built environment itself and an impetus on the role of those who are responsible for its design, construction and operation. Of particular note has been debate and behaviour surrounding the incorporation of security measures to specifically mitigate terrorist threats, as varying perceptions regarding obligations and incentives to do so have resulted in vulnerable places remaining unprotected. As part of on-going research into the security of the built environment, a three-year study into the protection of crowded places from terrorism has determined the factors that influence whether such measures are incorporated into built assets, in order to further understanding of the perceptions and reality behind decision making. Drawing on data obtained from interviews with 47 construction management and security professionals in the UK and USA, as well as observations during site visits and document analysis, a framework is put forward that presents the factors that influence whether security measures are incorporated, as well as the factors that influence the value of the measures themselves. The framework highlights the need to consider the incorporation of physical measures during the early design stages whilst also reconciling the requirements of such measures against those of other design criteria; to understand the intricacies surrounding risk mitigation within time and cost constraints, and to accrue maximum value. Such a framework, it is argued, would aid policy and key decision makers in co-ordinating their efforts and effectively protecting vulnerable places from the range of risks that the UK faces, thereby mitigating a range of natural hazards and major accidents, not just specific threats

Counter-terrorism complexity: identifying opportunities for innovation

As a result of the sustained and evolving threat from international and domestic terrorism, Government agendas are seeking to increase the extent to which vulnerable sites such as crowded places are protected from terrorist attacks. Recent events have highlighted the need for crowded places to be considered at higher risk, with plots and attacks in the UK alone focussing on such places in Birmingham, London, Glasgow, Exeter and Manchester. The vast majority of potential targets already exist and are therefore more complex to protect against an attack than by designing in counter-terrorism measures (CTM's) at the design and planning stages, although both result in complex trade-offs and scenarios. The aim of this research is to therefore examine the complexities inherent in ensuring crowded places are appropriately and proportionately protected from terrorist attacks, as well as identifying the trade-offs involved when designing in CTM's and retro-fitting existing locations. The benefits of and opportunities for innovation are also discussed, utilising examples from both the UK and USA where innovative technologies and practices have enabled publicly acceptable and proportionate CTM‟s to be incorporated into site designs. Empirical research was conducted alongside an extensive literature review. Case studies are used to illustrate the implications for decision makers involved in protecting crowded places. The results highlight that despite vast complexities existing when incorporating CTM‟s into existing or planned crowded places, a lack of informed and appropriate guidance for key decision makers on best practice is exacerbating this situation. As well as this, there is a lack of understanding of the inter-connectedness of the threats that are faced and the measures that are used to mitigate them. However, examples demonstrate that such complexities can lead to innovative solutions, with the Emirates Stadium in London incorporating a number of effective yet publicly acceptable CTM‟s into its design. Conclusions state that inherent complexities in such projects can act as catalysts for innovation. With the growing need for more comprehensive guidance on CTM‟s that are available for protecting crowded places, new research is examining the systemic implications and relative value of those measures. This will produce guidance for key decision makers and inform future legislation, guidelines and codes of practice