Paying the price for corporate social responsibility: social costs and dividends of oil and gas company approaches in Nigeria.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has grown in prominence over recent years. And rising levels of interest have been accompanied by contests within academic and business circles over the purpose and suitability of businesses having social responsibilities. The spectrum of opinion ranges from the view that CSR is an unnecessary and inappropriate cost for businesses to an integral and essential way for organisations to operate in order to secure sustainable futures. This debate has been well documented and it is not intended to review here. Although trans-national corporations' (TNCs) intentions are disputed, it is apparent that many organisations are spending considerable amounts of money under the remit of CSR. Financially, TNCs are paying the price for their policies. Again the extent to which this is investment to be subsequently recovered through accompanying business opportunities is not under discussion here. Instead, the author is interested in the social consequences of CSR and the implications for Southern hemisphere societies and communities. The particular focus in this paper is upon oil and gas TNC approaches within Nigeria. By looking at the social costs in the Niger Delta region in particular we can begin to identify why investments in CSR policies have failed to reap community dividends

CSR as corporate social responsibility or colonial structures return?

In this paper the impact of oil and gas companies in Nigeria is explored under the umbrella concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). At one level there is acknowledgement of greater emphasis on socially responsible policies. Nevertheless these are limited in scope and ambition and the energy sector continues to create social, environmental, cultural and political problems in the region. Focussing on the concept of CSR and lack of application should not however detract from the lack of engagement by the Nigerian government which has resulted in oil companies being held responsible for the failings of politicians. Instead the nature of the critique of the energy sector bears a striking resemblance to the demands against colonial rule. The crucial difference today though is that people are demanding greater control and regulation from the 'commercial colonialists' rather than less

Somalia's insecurity and the normalisation of violence.

In this chapter, the transformation of violence in Somalia is explored alongside concomitant shifting levels of insecurity and social constraint. Key historical, regional, national and international factors behind Somalia's structural weaknesses are examined. It is argued that shifting levels of social and individual constraints and the weakening and discarding of other forms of social controls have contributed to the diminution of levels of pacification and the normalisation of violence. These factors help to explain the recent pragmatic popularity of Islamic courts and institutions that have contributed to some degrees of security and predictability. Consequently I am not challenging the perception that Somalia faces considerable challenges with violence endemic. I am, however, seeking to embed these forms of violence within longer term social and political processes. Unfortunately the identification of the deep rooted nature of many of today's problems does not provide easy solutions. On the contrary, this analysis suggests that isolated acts of aid and/or intervention will not address the causes of violence over the longer term and acknowledges that the various attempts at state-building have ultimately proved detrimental. Nevertheless, addressing the fundamental problems facing Somalia can only become a possibility, however distant, when the long standing complexities are acknowledged

Social barriers to peace: socialisation processes in the radicalisation of the Palestinian struggle.

Contemporary analysis of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians tends to focus upon Islamic terrorism and Israeli state aggression. Representations and analysis are dominated by media images of terrorist/freedom fighters atrocities and military incursions. Explanations have concentrated upon 'tit-for-tat' killings and, in the case of Islamic terrorists/freedom fighters, their actions are seen as acts of desperation against a backdrop of materialist exclusion. These accounts often inform about current events but do not develop broad levels of understanding and explanation that are required if the reasons for the contemporary nature of radicalism within the conflict are to be established. This paper aims to address why violence is increasing today when many of the issues facing Palestinians have been experienced for generations. It is argued that while material problems are central to understanding the long-term conflict, social experiences and interactions are also crucial to understanding the contemporary situation. Consequently attention within this paper is placed upon changes in socialisation processes and discursive consciousness that have become instrumental in the radicalisation of many Palestinians and as such are barriers to peace

Beyond the fringe? Radicalisation within the American far-right.

The concentration within America upon terrorism and Muslims overlooks recent acts of political violence undertaken by the indigenous extreme far-right. In this article the rise of the militia and Christian Identity movement in America is explored and the social processes and agents behind the radicalisation of individuals and groups and emergence of political violence examined. It is argued that, while the 1995 Oklahoma bombing led to the movement's growing popularity being curtailed, many of the factors behind its rise remain. By exploring the broad range of issues behind the emergence of the contemporary movement, the popular perception that support for related groups has been mobilised by materialism is challenged. In some aspects underlying reasons for mobilisation have been exasperated both by the perceived failure of George W. Bush to deliver electoral promises that were supported within the far-right movement and conversely the Democrat Party's success in the 2006 mid-term elections. Consequently, the home-grown 'enemy within' remains a threat

Islam and the construction of modern nationalism: the unintended consequences of state sponsored socialisation.

Around the world approaches by Muslim governments to introduce secularisation and create national consciousness have relied heavily upon processes of state sponsored socialisation. Across the overwhelming majority of Muslim societies, secular structures, processes and national identities are, to varying degrees, in place. Overall, however, the increased prominence of Islam generally, and militant strands in particular, and the extent to which large numbers of people most strongly associate with religion rather than nation indicates that state sponsored socialisation has only been partially successful. Islam is embedded within constructions of nationalism and in some instances religious influences are contributing to processes of radicalisation and challenges to secular governments. To help explain this apparent paradox, in this chapter the emergence of Muslim nation-states and implementation of formal socialising processes is explored, and the concept of 'unintended consequences' is applied to nation-state policies and international relations. These consequences, some of which stem from previous generations, continue to resonate today, contributing towards processes of radicalisation across Muslims societies and communities

Resilience and social cohesion through the lens of residents in a Kenyan informal settlement.

Over recent years, resilient attitudes and behaviour are widely seen within the Global North to be potential solutions to community developmental challenges. Although greater international emphasis is being placed on ‘bottom up’ approaches, learning from existing levels of resilience among communities such as residents in informal settlements has aroused limited attention. Instead analysis of informal settlements tends to concentrate on the multitude of environmental, economic and social problems that many communities share and internationally derived normative solutions. To help address this relative neglect, research was designed that sought more information about local experiences, people and processes that have been instrumental in building levels of resilience that help overcome challenges and improve well-being. Using the photovoice methodological technique, a project was developed to capture experiences of participants in Kibera, Nairobi. Participants were young people and either role models or had the potential to be. In so doing the project was participant driven, learning from residents about who and what have been influential in the development and maintenance of resilience. The results highlighted the particular significance of social cohesion and, in particular, relationships and attachment to place

Sustainable energy for emerging nations development: a case study on Togo renewable energy.

This paper explores the need for an appropriate energy delivery, placing emphasis on the role of the indigenous people in developing their future needs. The case study is based on Togo renewable energy sustainability and employs qualitative and quantitative research to achieve the result. The study stems from the fact that Togo like most African countries has a lot of natural resources such as solar, wind and hydro-electric power required to implement a nationwide sustainable energy system. Yet only 27% of Togolese have access to electricity. The research incorporates critical elements such as the identification of local energy needs, the use of low-cost, effective, and locally made appropriate technologies, and the encouragement of capacity building. The study results show the strong will to develop renewable energy technologies however key barriers are due to inadequate framework regulations that governs the energy sector; lack of policies and strategies that encourages the use of feasible technologies and the lack of capacity development. The results findings will be discussed in details and conclusions drawn in this work presentation

A PESTEL and SWOT impact analysis on renewable energy development in Togo.

Like most developing countries, Togo continues to rely on the use of traditional forms of biomass energy which causes tremendous socio-economic, environmental and health hazards. In addition, the imbalanced distribution and use of electricity, petroleum and liquid gas reflect the disproportion in income and quality of life. This paper plans to highlight the development renewable energy has had in the past decade and the challenges facing the Togolese government, using a framework approach that will best address. Framework approach such as PESTEL and SWOT analysis are utilised to access both the internal and external factors in relation to renewable energy development and its impact on Togo. This will provide a better understanding of the sustainability issues facing Togo and provide solutions on the best methods that will lead to greater impact and development. The result shows that renewable energy development in Togo has improved in the past decade and had some impact on the socio-economic development. However better development will be achieved if approaches are introduced to provide a long-term solution to the high capital costs of the technologies, institutional sustainability is incorporated, the number of trained personnel/technical expertise is increased and the Government engagement with funding bodies to secure funds that will favour off-grid and poorest communities is increased. There is also a need to include local participation in the design and operation of projects, introduce cross-subsidization tariff scheme that cover the operation and maintenance cost of off-grid solar PV users that will favour poor households. Finally, liberalization of the energy sector is needed as well as government's support to help private investment in rural electrification via Build-Own-Operate arrangements

Children in peace-building and violence during political instability in a Kenyan informal settlement.

Despite increasing attention to a wide range of actors in conflict in the scholarly literature, the roles and experiences of children have been largely considered only in terms of their victimhood. Similarly, in global policy discourses, children and youth are predominantly understood in relation to their vulnerability and the protection of their rights, or alternatively as a threat to security (as is notable in ideas around the so-called youth bulge and violence). In this paper, we contribute to the emerging literature within peacebuilding that considers children both as actors in conflict and as potential agents of change. In particular, we link these arguments to debates about individual and community resilience in settings of regularised or long-term violence, and how children navigate through challenging relationships. Drawing on recent semi-structured interviews with community members who were classified as children during the events and older CBO youth leaders in Kibera, Nairobi, we examine perceptions and understandings of children's involvement in peacebuilding and in violence during the contested elections of 2017 in Kenya. Our findings highlight how children connect with interethnic resentments and aggressive behaviour, or develop higher levels of agency, in terms of overcoming such social learning and of peacebuilding activities. How children behave during the period of election tensions is being shaped by differing relationships and experiences, which are interwoven within ethnic, gender and place identifications. The paper concludes with considerations of children within peacebuilding and violent processes in the forthcoming 2022 elections