Escherichia coli as an indicator of bacteriological quality of water: an overview

Monitoring the microbiological quality of drinking water relies largely on examination of indicator bacteria such as coliforms, <em>Escherichia coli</em>, and <em>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</em>. <em>E. coli</em> is a member of the faecal coliform group and is a more specific indicator of faecal pollution than other faecal coliforms. Two key factors have led to the trend toward the use of <em>E. coli </em>as the preferred indicator for the detection of faecal contamination, not only in drinking water, but also in other matrices as well: first, the finding that some <em>faecal coliforms</em> were non faecal in origin, and second, the development of improved testing methods for<em> E. coli</em>. The faecal coliform definition has also been revised to coincide better with the genetic make-up of its members and now includes newly identified environmental species. As a result, faecal coliforms are increasingly being referred to as <em>thermotolerant</em> coliforms. This, combined with improved detection methods for <em>E. coli</em>, has started a trend toward the use of <em>E. coli</em> in place of thermotolerant coliforms as a more reliable indicator of faecal pollution in drinking water. At present, <em>E. coli</em> appears to provide the best bacterial indication of faecal contamination in drinking water. This is based on the prevalence of thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms in temperate environments as compared to the rare incidence of<em> E. coli</em>, the prevalence of <em>E. coli </em>in human and animal faeces as compared to other thermotolerant coliforms, and the availability of affordable, fast, sensitive, specific and easier to perform detection methods for <em>E. coli</em>

An Assessment of Food Safety Knowledge and Practices in the Ghanaian Hospitality Industry

Food safety is critical for public health and economic development. The hospitality industry offers a variety of food services, led by food handlers with diverse background. The aim of this paper is to evaluate food safety knowledge and practices among food handlers in the Ghanaian hospitality sectors, with the purpose of informing public policy and improving food safety. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted between February and May 2019. Data were obtained from food handlers working in the Ghanaian hospitality industry (N = 306). The findings of the study indicate that most (52.9%) respondents who work in restaurants had knowledge about food safety principles. Lack of training and education was identified by 63.1% of the respondents as a major barrier to food safety. Interestingly, 75.8% of the respondents indicated that food safety practice is not the responsibility of the kitchen staff only. Diarrhea (35.95%), cholera (35.62%), and typhoid (27.42%) were identified as major diseases associated with improper handling of food. Only 65.69% of the respondents undergo annual medical screening at their workplaces. There is correlation between food safety practice and variables such as marital status, type of residence, age, and education level. Educational campaigns coupled with strict law enforcement should be put in place to ensure that food safety rules and guideline are effectively implemented in the hospitality food industry. Training programs should be organized for food vendors and other stakeholders in the food industry as well. Finally, there should be proactive supervision by local government officials to ensure that good sanitation and hygienic conditions are maintained within the food sectors

Escherichia coli as a Tool for Disease Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Sources

Many diseases have been associated with poor drinking water quality including diseases caused by diarrheagenic pathogens, especially in developing countries where access to a consistent water supply is a problem. The objective of the study was to evaluate the health risks associated with the sources of drinking water in the Dangme West District of Ghana using E. coli as a measurement tool, aiming at ascertaining the paths leading to contamination of the water sources. A total of 464 water samples were obtained for analysis. Sampling covered a year across the dry and wet seasons in Ghana. Water samples were obtained from groundwater and surface water sources. E. coli counts were determined using the most probable number method (MPN). Disease risk assessment was carried out using the WHO drinking water risk assessment guidelines. Generally, the study revealed significantly higher E. coli counts in the wet season than in the dry season. Among the water samples analyzed, surface water, especially from the dams, was found to pose the highest disease risk as compared to the other water sources. Samples from groundwater sources, especially boreholes, posed the lowest disease risk. In conclusion, observations from the study implied that most water sources in the study district are highly polluted with bacteria pathogens beyond recommended safety guidelines. The main causes of faecal contamination in these water sources were purported to be anthropogenic. Therefore, there is a need to formulate a policy aimed at managing and improving rural water sources

Microbial Air Quality in Neighborhoods near Landfill Sites: Implications for Public Health

Air pollution has been a major challenge worldwide particularly in the developing world. Improper waste disposal and management may result in microbial air pollution. In advanced countries, landfill sites are far from neighborhoods; however, the opposite is observed for landfill sites in the developing world. In Accra, some landfill sites are 100 meters from neighborhoods. The aim of this study was to assess the microbial air quality and associated environmental health hazards of landfill sites in selected districts in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. A random sampling method was employed to select sampling sites across the dry and wet seasons from landfills and their corresponding neighborhoods. Results obtained showed a higher total count (CFU/m3) of bacteria and fungi in the air at the landfill sites than neighborhoods. Statistically significant variation p<0.05 in bacterial and fungal concentrations over two seasons was found for both landfills and neighborhoods. However, bacterial concentrations were significantly higher than fungal concentrations p<0.05 across seasons for all locations. Staphylococcus epidermidis was the highest (15.6 %) occurring microbe at both landfill sites and neighborhoods. This was followed by Staphylococcus aureus (12.7%). Other bacteria and fungi of public health importance such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus niger were also isolated from the study sites, above the WHO recommended levels. In conclusion, the landfill waste disposal and its close proximity to neighborhoods as observed in this study pose a potential environmental health risk, with dire implications for public health and safety. The government must enact and implement policies to regulate waste management and to ensure public safety

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions of Air Pollution in Accra, Ghana: A Critical Survey

Air pollution has been a major challenge worldwide particularly in the developing world. It has dire implications for human health. Understanding the knowledge and behaviour of the populace is key to the development and implementation of necessary intervention programmes. The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of air pollution in the Accra, Ghana. The study employed a cross-sectional design to obtain quantitative data form 1404 respondents, and the results were analysed with SPSS version 23. There were more (54.1%) female respondents than males (45.9%) in the study. The majority (70.5%) of the respondents were aware of the haze (air pollution) and its adverse effects on health. There was however a significant relationship between the sociodemographics and air pollution awareness (P=0.01). There was also a correlation between residents’ age, educational level, length of stay, marital status, and knowledge/awareness rate of air pollution (P<0.05). Although the majority of the respondents are aware of air pollution and its relationship to their health, rates of awareness were low in some demographic groups like the elderly and the less educated. Therefore, nondiscriminatory policies should be formed toward the education and guidance of people to become knowledgeable about air pollution and related health challenges. Most of the residents admitted improving air quality is the responsibility of every citizen. The government should utilize this to form collaborative measure with the citizens for a more effective control of air pollution

Prevalence of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Drinking Water Sources

The control of infectious diseases is badly endangered by the rise in the number of microorganisms that are resistant to antimicrobial agents. This is because infections caused by resistant microorganisms often fail to respond to conventional treatment, resulting in prolonged illness and greater risk of death. Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria are also present in various water sources. This study therefore sought to document the microbiological quality and antibiograms of bacterial isolates (E. coli strains) from six different water sources in order to determine their safety for human consumption and to provide updated antibiotic data for pragmatic treatment of patients. Bacteria isolation and identification was done using API and conventional methods. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was conducted using the Kirby–Bauer method. Results obtained indicated that all the water sources tested were of poor quality. Bacteria isolated included E. coli, Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Salmonella typhi, Streptococcus spp., Proteus vulgaris, Vibrio cholera, Shigella spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterococcus faecalis. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant E. coli was 49.48%. E. coli isolates showed high resistance patterns to the tested antibiotics. They were most resistant to penicillin (32.99%), cefuroxime (28.87%), erythromycin (23.71%), and tetracycline (21.45%). In contrast, they were susceptible to nitrofurantoin (93.8%), cefotaxime and amikacin (91.75%), gentamicin (90.7%), nalidixic acid (89.65%), ciprofloxacin (74.2%), chloramphenicol (69.07%), pipemidic acid (65.97%), and cefuroxime (52.58%). Sixty-three percent (63%) of the multidrug-resistant E. coli strains recorded a multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index value >0.2. The susceptible antibiotics, especially the nitrofurantoin, are hence recommended in the practical treatment of waterborne bacterial diseases

An Assessment of Public Knowledge and Potential Health Impacts of Global Warming in Ghana

Global warming is a serious threat to human existence. The relatively higher level of global warming in recent times poses higher health risks to humans, both directly and indirectly. The aim of the study was to investigate public knowledge of global warming and its effects on human health. A nationally representative survey of Ghanaian adults (N=1130) was conducted from November 1, 2018 to February 28, 2019. Results show that 84.4% of the respondents understood the meaning of global warming. Respondents’ perceived causes of global warming include natural processes, deforestation, act of the gods, burning of fossil fuel, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission from vehicles and industries. The majority of the respondents (83.4%) indicated that global warming has an impact on human health, while 8.5% indicated that it does not. Majority (78.6%) of the respondents are willing to support efforts to reduce the intensity of global warming. Television (19.1%) and social media (18.6%) were the leading preferred methods for receipt of global warming information. These findings provide useful insights for policy directions. The Government of Ghana and other stakeholders in health should develop a communication strategy to increase and sustain publicity and education of the citizenry on global warming

Food Safety Practices among Postnatal Mothers in Western Ghana

Food safety has become a global issue due to the morbidity and mortality associated with it, particularly in developing countries. The objective of this community-based study is to examine food safety practices and its associated factors among postnatal mothers in the Western Region of Ghana. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted from August 1 2019 to January 31, 2020 from which data was obtained from the postnatal mothers (N=300). The data was analysed using SPSS v.23. The findings suggest that majority (86%) of the respondents exhibited good food handling practices. Also, 66.3% and 91.7% of the respondents exhibited good food preparation and proper storage practices, respectively. Results also revealed that the odds of performing good handling practice among respondents within the age group of 36-45 years were five times higher compared to those within the age group of 18-25 years [OR=4.92 (95% CI: 1.44–16.86), p=0.011]. Moreover, respondents who had tertiary education qualifications were more likely to have proper food handling practices compared to those with primary education [OR=0.27 (95% CI: 0.09–0.71), p=0.009]. These findings provide useful insights for policy directions. The government of Ghana and other stakeholders should develop a communication strategy to increase and sustain publicity and education on food safety particularly to postnatal mothers and the citizenry in general

Prevalence and Antibiotic Susceptibility Profile of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Accra, Ghana

Over the last four decades, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has spread throughout the world and become highly endemic in many geographical areas. This pathogen causes severe morbidity and mortality in hospitals worldwide. MRSA is also considered a major community acquired pathogen throughout the world. MRSA is implicated in serious clinical conditions such as bacteremia, pneumonia, and intra-abdominal infection. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of MRSA in Accra, Ghana, and also to determine its antibiotic susceptibility profile. Two hundred and fifty Staphylococcus aureus isolates from routine microbiological specimens were collected from five hospitals in Accra. MRSA screening assay was used to screen for MRSA. Disc diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer) was used to determine the susceptibility of the MRSA. The MRSA screening assay, which is very close to the polymerase chain reaction in terms of specificity and sensitivity, showed that 84 of the 250 isolates were MRSA, giving a prevalence rate of 33.6%. MRSA strains were susceptible to erythromycin; 63 out of the 84 MRSA isolates were susceptible representing 75%. This was followed by gentamicin 46 (54.7%), cotrimoxazole 35 (49%), cefuroxime 33 (38%), flucloxacillin 24 (28.6%), and ampicillin 13 (15.5%). Penicillin 4 (4.8%) and tetracycline 6 (7.1%) were the least susceptible. The findings from this study emphasize the need for continual surveillance of MRSA and of antibiotic resistance in general

Knowledge, Attitude, and Adaptation to Climate Change in Ghana

Climate change is a serious challenge to human existence. It threatens efforts towards the attainment of sustainable development goals and aggravates conditions that lead to health inequities and inequalities for vulnerable populations. The study aimed to investigate knowledge and adaptation to climate change among people in Ghana. A nationally representative survey of Ghanaian adults (N = 674) was conducted from August 1, 2019, to December 31, 2019. Results showed that 43.9% of the respondents understood the meaning of climate change. Respondents perceived the causes of climate change to include burning of fossil fuel, deforestation, natural events such as ocean currents, carbon emission from vehicles and industries, agricultural emissions of nitrous oxide from fertilizers, and an act of God. About 53.1% and 41% of the male and female respondents, respectively, had an encounter with climate change-induced natural disasters. About two out of five respondents (43%) were either afraid or confused about climate change. Distilled or maintained public drainage from waste (30.2%) and clearing drains (25.6%) was the leading adaptation strategies towards climate change-induced natural disasters. Training (30.1%), national radio (27.7%), and television (19.1%) were the preferred leading methods for receipt of global warming information. These findings provide useful insights for policy directions. The government of Ghana and other stakeholders should develop a communication strategy to increase and sustain publicity and education on climate change to the citizenry