Now the wars are over: The past, present and future of Scottish battlefields

Battlefield archaeology has provided a new way of appreciating historic battlefields. This paper provides a summary of the long history of warfare and conflict in Scotland which has given rise to a large number of battlefield sites. Recent moves to highlight the archaeological importance of these sites, in the form of Historic Scotland’s Battlefields Inventory are discussed, along with some of the problems associated with the preservation and management of these important cultural sites

Serum concentration trends and apparent half-lives of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in Australian firefighters

Background: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent manmade compounds used in aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). The extensive use of AFFF has led to widespread environmental PFAS contamination and exposures of firefighters. Objectives: To determine PFAS blood serum concentration trends and apparent serum half-lives in firefighters after the replacement of AFFF. Methods: Current and former employees of an Australian corporation providing firefighting services, where AFFF formulations had been used since the 1980s up until 2010, were recruited in 2018–2019 to participate in this study. Special focus was put on re-recruiting participants who had provided blood samples five years prior (2013–2014). Participants were asked to provide a blood sample and fill in a questionnaire. Serum samples were analysed for 40 different PFASs using HP LC-MS/MS. Results: A total of 799 participants provided blood samples in 2018–2019. Of these, 130 previously provided blood serum in 2013–2014. In 2018–2019, mean (arithmetic) serum concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS, 27 ng/mL), perfluoroheptane sulfonate (PFHpS, 1.7 ng/mL) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS, 14 ng/mL) were higher than the levels in the general Australian population. Serum concentrations were associated with the use of PFOS/PFHxS based AFFF. Participants who commenced service after the replacement of this foam had serum concentrations similar to those in the general population. Mean (arithmetic) individual apparent half-lives were estimated to be 5.0 years (perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)), 7.8 years (PFHxS), 7.4 years (PFHpS) and 6.5 years (PFOS). Conclusion: This study shows how workplace interventions such as replacement of AFFF can benefit employees at risk of occupational exposure.</p