Mycophenolic acid suppresses granulopoiesis by inhibition of interleukin-17 production

Mycophenolic acid is a commonly used immunosuppressant after organ transplantation and in autoimmune diseases; however, myelosuppression is a major complication despite its largely favorable side-effect profile. Mycophenolic acid targets inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase, which is essential for T-cell proliferation. The T-cell cytokine interleukin-17 (IL-17 or IL-17A) and its receptor maintain normal neutrophilic granulocyte numbers in mice by induction of granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor. To test whether mycophenolic acid induces neutropenia by inhibiting IL-17-producing T cells, we treated C57Bl/6 mice with mycophenolate-mofetil (the orally available pro-drug) and found a dose-dependent decrease in blood neutrophils. This myelosuppressive effect was completely abolished in mice that lack the IL-17 receptor. Mycophenolic acid delayed myeloid recovery after bone marrow transplantation and decreased the percentage of IL-17-producing T cells in the spleen and thymus, and inhibited IL-17 production in human and mouse T cells in vitro. Injection of IL-17 during mycophenolic acid treatment overcame the suppression of the circulating neutrophil levels. Our study shows that mycophenolic acid suppresses neutrophil production by inhibiting IL-17 expression, suggesting that measurement of this interleukin might be useful in estimating the risk of neutropenia in clinical settings

Annexin A1 exerts renoprotective effects in experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis

Non-resolving inflammation plays a critical role during the transition from renal injury towards end-stage renal disease. The glucocorticoid-inducible protein annexin A1 has been shown to function as key regulator in the resolution phase of inflammation, but its role in immune-mediated crescentic glomerulonephritis has not been studied so far. Methods: Acute crescentic glomerulonephritis was induced in annexin A1-deficient and wildtype mice using a sheep serum against rat glomerular basement membrane constituents. Animals were sacrificed at d5 and d10 after nephritis induction. Renal leukocyte abundance was studied by immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. Alterations in gene expression were determined by RNA-Seq and gene ontology analysis. Renal levels of eicosanoids and related lipid products were measured using lipid mass spectrometry. Results: Histological analysis revealed an increased number of sclerotic glomeruli and aggravated tubulointerstitial damage in the kidneys of annexin A1-deficient mice compared to the wildtype controls. Flow cytometry analysis confirmed an increased number of CD45 + leukocytes and neutrophil granulocytes in the absence of annexin A1. Lipid mass spectrometry showed elevated levels of prostaglandins PGE2 and PGD2 and reduced levels of antiinflammatory epoxydocosapentaenoic acid regioisomers. RNA-Seq with subsequent gene ontology analysis revealed induction of gene products related to leukocyte activation and chemotaxis as well as regulation of cytokine production and secretion. Conclusion: Intrinsic annexin A1 reduces proinflammatory signals and infiltration of neutrophil granulocytes and thereby protects the kidney during crescentic glomerulonephritis. The annexin A1 signaling cascade may therefore provide novel targets for the treatment of inflammatory kidney disease

Annexin A1 exerts renoprotective effects in experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis

Non-resolving inflammation plays a critical role during the transition from renal injury towards end-stage renal disease. The glucocorticoid-inducible protein annexin A1 has been shown to function as key regulator in the resolution phase of inflammation, but its role in immune-mediated crescentic glomerulonephritis has not been studied so far. Methods: Acute crescentic glomerulonephritis was induced in annexin A1-deficient and wildtype mice using a sheep serum against rat glomerular basement membrane constituents. Animals were sacrificed at d5 and d10 after nephritis induction. Renal leukocyte abundance was studied by immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. Alterations in gene expression were determined by RNA-Seq and gene ontology analysis. Renal levels of eicosanoids and related lipid products were measured using lipid mass spectrometry. Results: Histological analysis revealed an increased number of sclerotic glomeruli and aggravated tubulointerstitial damage in the kidneys of annexin A1-deficient mice compared to the wildtype controls. Flow cytometry analysis confirmed an increased number of CD45+ leukocytes and neutrophil granulocytes in the absence of annexin A1. Lipid mass spectrometry showed elevated levels of prostaglandins PGE2 and PGD2 and reduced levels of antiinflammatory epoxydocosapentaenoic acid regioisomers. RNA-Seq with subsequent gene ontology analysis revealed induction of gene products related to leukocyte activation and chemotaxis as well as regulation of cytokine production and secretion. Conclusion: Intrinsic annexin A1 reduces proinflammatory signals and infiltration of neutrophil granulocytes and thereby protects the kidney during crescentic glomerulonephritis. The annexin A1 signaling cascade may therefore provide novel targets for the treatment of inflammatory kidney disease

Mycophenolate Mofetil Decreases Atherosclerotic Lesion Size by Depression of Aortic T-Lymphocyte and Interleukin-17–Mediated Macrophage Accumulation

ObjectivesThis study tested whether immunosuppression with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) inhibits atherosclerosis development in apolipoprotein-E–deficient (Apoe−/−) mice and investigated the mechanism.BackgroundChronic vascular inflammation involving both innate and adaptive immunity is central in the development of atherosclerosis, but immunosuppressive treatment is not uniformly beneficial. The immunosuppressive MMF targets lymphocyte proliferation by inhibiting inosine-monophosphate dehydrogenase.MethodsYoung and aged Apoe−/− mice were treated with 30 mg/kg daily MMF during 12 and 3 weeks of a high-fat diet, respectively. Aortic lesion size and composition was investigated by histology and flow cytometry; soluble inflammatory mediators were investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.ResultsMacroscopic and histologic aortic atherosclerotic lesions were significantly decreased in both MMF-treated groups. While systemic immunoglobulin G directed against low-density lipoproteins was not significantly altered, the T-cell cytokine interleukin (IL)-17 was significantly reduced in plasma of MMF-treated mice and supernatants from their aortas after T-cell stimulation. The MMF treatment decreased aortic αβ T-cell receptor+ lymphocyte proliferation and cell numbers. Also, aortic contents of CD11b+CD11c+ cells and their proliferation were reduced in MMF-treated Apoe−/− mice. The IL-17 supplementation restored the number of proliferating aortic CD11b+CD11c+ cells in MMF-treated mice. The IL-17 receptor A was highly expressed on circulating monocytes that are macrophage progenitors. Genetic deletion of IL-17 receptor A or IL-17A reduced inflammatory peritoneal CD11b+CD11c+ macrophage accumulation.ConclusionsThe lymphocyte-directed immunosuppressant MMF that curbs IL-17 production was a successful antiatherosclerotic treatment. Our data delineate a role for IL-17 in CD11b+CD11c+ cell accumulation

Chemokine CXCL13 as a New Systemic Biomarker for B-Cell Involvement in Acute T Cell-Mediated Kidney Allograft Rejection

The presence of B-cell clusters in allogenic T cell-mediated rejection (TCMR) of kidney allografts is linked to more severe disease entities. In this study we characterized B-cell infiltrates in patients with TCMR and examined the role of serum CXCL-13 in these patients and experimentally. CXCL-13 serum levels were analyzed in 73 kidney allograft recipients at the time of allograft biopsy. In addition, four patients were evaluated for CXCL13 levels during the first week after transplantation. ELISA was done to measure CXCL-13 serum levels. For further mechanistic understanding, a translational allogenic kidney transplant (ktx) mouse model for TCMR was studied in BalbC recipients of fully mismatched transplants with C57BL/6 donor kidneys. CXCL-13 serum levels were measured longitudinally, CD20 and CD3 composition and CXCL13 mRNA in tissue were examined by flow cytometry and kidneys were examined by histology and immunohistochemistry. We found significantly higher serum levels of the B-cell chemoattractant CXCL13 in patients with TCMR compared to controls and patients with borderline TCMR. Moreover, in patients with acute rejection within the first week after ktx, a >5-fold CXCL13 increase was measured and correlated with B-cell infiltrates in the biopsies. In line with the clinical findings, TCMR in mice correlated with increased systemic serum-CXCL13 levels. Moreover, renal allografts had significantly higher CXCL13 mRNA expression than isogenic controls and showed interstitial CD20+ B-cell clusters and CD3+ cell infiltrates accumulating in the vicinity of renal vessels. CXCL13 blood levels correlate with B-cell involvement in TCMR and might help to identify patients at risk of a more severe clinical course of rejection

Increased Expression of the Auxiliary β(2)-subunit of Ventricular L-type Ca(2+) Channels Leads to Single-Channel Activity Characteristic of Heart Failure

BACKGROUND: Increased activity of single ventricular L-type Ca(2+)-channels (L-VDCC) is a hallmark in human heart failure. Recent findings suggest differential modulation by several auxiliary β-subunits as a possible explanation. METHODS AND RESULTS: By molecular and functional analyses of human and murine ventricles, we find that enhanced L-VDCC activity is accompanied by altered expression pattern of auxiliary L-VDCC β-subunit gene products. In HEK293-cells we show differential modulation of single L-VDCC activity by coexpression of several human cardiac β-subunits: Unlike β(1) or β(3) isoforms, β(2a) and β(2b) induce a high-activity channel behavior typical of failing myocytes. In accordance, β(2)-subunit mRNA and protein are up-regulated in failing human myocardium. In a model of heart failure we find that mice overexpressing the human cardiac Ca(V)1.2 also reveal increased single-channel activity and sarcolemmal β(2) expression when entering into the maladaptive stage of heart failure. Interestingly, these animals, when still young and non-failing (“Adaptive Phase”), reveal the opposite phenotype, viz : reduced single-channel activity accompanied by lowered β(2) expression. Additional evidence for the cause-effect relationship between β(2)-subunit expression and single L-VDCC activity is provided by newly engineered, double-transgenic mice bearing both constitutive Ca(V)1.2 and inducible β(2) cardiac overexpression. Here in non-failing hearts induction of β(2)-subunit overexpression mimicked the increase of single L-VDCC activity observed in murine and human chronic heart failure. CONCLUSIONS: Our study presents evidence of the pathobiochemical relevance of β(2)-subunits for the electrophysiological phenotype of cardiac L-VDCC and thus provides an explanation for the single L-VDCC gating observed in human and murine heart failure

The ecdysone systeme for inducible gene expression in the heart of transgenic mice

Zusammenfassung Systeme zur induzierbaren Transgenexpression sind wichtige Werkzeuge, um die Funktion einzelner Gene in vitro und in vivo zu untersuchen. Sie bestehen aus drei Grundkomponenten, einem zu regulierenden Zielgen, einem "Schalter" und einem Liganden, der diesen Schalter bedient. In dieser Arbeit wurden Untersuchungen am Ecdysonsystem durchgeführt, das als Schalter den Insektensteroidhormonrezeptor für das Verpuppungshormon Ecdyson verwendet. Zunächst wurde ein neuer Rezeptor mit der Ligandenbindedomäne des Ecdysonrezeptors (EcR) des Seidenspinners Bombyx mori konstruiert, dessen Eigenschaften in der Zellkultur mit einem DrosophilaEcR-Konstrukt, das für mammalische Expression optimiert ist, verglichen wurden. Mit dem BombyxEcR konnte die Transgenexpression durch den nichtsteroidalen Liganden Tebufenozid gesteuert werden, was beim DrosophilaEcR nicht möglich war. Damit ist man in diesem Expressionssystem nicht wie beim DrosophilaEcR auf teure steroidale Liganden wie Ponasteron angewiesen. Außerdem mußte beim BombyxEcR der Heterodimerisierungspartner RXR nicht kotransfiziert werden. In Bezug auf erreichbaren Induktionsfaktor und Kinetik der Genexpression zeigten sich für die beiden Systeme vergleichbare Ergebnisse. Weiterhin wurden durch Pronukleusinjektion transgene Mäuse erzeugt, die den BombyxEcR unter einem herzspezifischen Promotor (aMHC) exprimieren. Als Zielgen wurde die b2a-Untereinheit des L-Typ-Calciumkanals eingebracht, die mit dem neuen Schaltsystem herzspezifisch gesteuert werden sollte. Die Bioverfügbarkeit des Agonisten Tebufenozid nach intraperitonealer Injektion wurde in einem in-vitro Assay in HEK293-Zellen überprüft. Es ergaben sich hinreichende Wirkstoffspiegel im Serum der Mäuse, um das Reportergen zu induzieren. Auch wenn bei der transgenen Maus nach der Induktion mit Tebufenozid kein immunologischer Nachweis erhöhter Expression der b2a-Untereinheit gelang,konnte doch in Herzkatheteruntersuchungen eine veränderte Herzfunktion nachgewiesen werden. Bei transgenen Mäusen führte die intraperitoneale Applikation von Tebufenozid für bis zu sieben Tage zu einem signifikanten Anstieg des systolischen Blutdrucks und der maximalen linksventrikulären Kontraktionsgeschwindigkeit, der bei nicht-transgenen Kontrolltieren nicht beobachtet wurde. Diese Befunde deuten erstmals in vivo darauf hin, daß die b2a–Untereinheit des L-Typ-Calciumkanals am Herzen eine positiv inotrope Wirkung vermitteln kann. Systeme zur induzierbaren Genexpression müssen weiterentwickelt werden, um die Ideale der präzisen Steuerung ohne Nebenwirkungen sowohl für die Grundlagenforschung als auch für eine in weiterer Zukunft liegende Verwendung in der Gentherapie zu erreichen.English Summary Systems for inducible transgene expression are important tools to study the function of single genes in vitro and in vivo. They consist of three compounds, a regulated target gene, the gene for the "switch" and a ligand to operate this switch. This work describes experiments on the ecdysone system, which uses the insect steroid hormone receptor for the molting hormone Ecdysone. First, a new receptor with the ligand binding domain of the Ecdysone receptor (EcR) of the silkmoth Bombyx mori was constructed and compared in cell culture to a DrosophilaEcR optimised for use in mammal expression. The BombyxEcR could regulate transgene expression with the nonsteroidal ligand Tebufenozide in contrast to the DrosophilaEcR. So the investigator becomes independent of expensive steroidal ligands like Ponasterone. Additionally, it was not necessary to cotransfect RXR, the partner for heterodimerisation, with the BombyxEcR. Concerning induction factor and kinetics of gene expression, there was no signifikant difference between the two systems. Second, transgenic mice that expressed the BombyxEcR under the cardiac specific promotor aMHC were generated by pronucleus injection. The target gene that was ment to be regulated in a cardiac specific manner was the b2a-subunit of the L-type Calcium channel. The bioavailability of the agonist Tebufenozide after intraperitoneal injection was studied in a bioassay with HEK293-cells. It showed sufficient serum concentrations of the agonist to induce the reporter gene. Although it was not possible to prove an overexpression of the b2a-subunit after Tebufenozide treatment immunologically, cardiac catheterisations showed an altered cardiac function. In transgenic mice, intraperitoneal application of Tebufenozide for seven days or less led to a significant increase of systolic blood pressure and maximal left ventricular contractiliy. No effect was observed in non-transgenic control animals. This results indicate for the first time in vivo , that the b2a–subunit of the L-type calcium channel can have a positive ionotropic effect on the heart. Systems for inducible transgene expression will further have to be modified to reach the ideals of precise regulation without side effects for basic research as well as for use in gene therapy in a much more distant future

Regulation and function of CX3CR1 and its ligand CX3CL1 in kidney disease

Attraction, retention, and differentiation of leukocytes to and within the kidney are governed by chemokines. The chemokine CX3CL1 (fractalkine) and its receptor CX3CR1 are exemplary in this regard as they are highly expressed and further upregulated in a range of kidney diseases. CX3CL1 is chiefly produced by renal endothelium and tubular epithelium, where it promotes leukocyte attraction. Recent data suggest that in addition to established soluble mediators, cellular interactions may enhance CX3CL1 expression. The receptor CX3CR1 is essential in myeloid phagocyte homing to the kidney at homeostasis, after acute cell depletion and in inflammation. CX3CR1 and its ligand are highly regulated in human kidney diseases such as IgA nephritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and inflammatory conditions such as transplant rejection. A mechanistic role of CX3CR1 has been established in experimental models of nephrotoxic nephritis and renal candidiasis. It is debated in fibrosis. Recent publications demonstrate a role for CX3CR1⁺ myeloid cells in radio-contrast-agent and sepsis-induced kidney damage. Systemically, circulating CX3CR1⁺ monocytes reversibly increase in individuals with renal impairment and correlate with their cardiovascular risk. In this review, we discuss role and regulatory mechanisms of the CX3CL1-CX3CR1 axis in both localized and systemic effects of renal inflammation