A study of the epidemiology and socio-economic impact of anthrax in Luangwa Valley in Zambia

Anthrax is endemic in Luangwa National Park and the adjoining Game Management areas. The first official case of the disease was reported in 1922 in Luambe National Park. In 1987 a large-scale anthrax epidemic ravaged almost the entire Luangwa Valley. Since then at least three epidemics of the disease have been reported. Localised sporadic cases of the disease occur almost annually. Despite the frequent epidemics little is known of anthrax in terms of its epidemiology and impact on conservation. Mortalities were not investigated as wildlife officials attributed the mortalities to natural factors, animal population densities were not estimated and a no systematic disease surveillance programme exists. The number of animals that have died of the disease is not known. Anthrax mortalities are estimated in thousands. For example it is estimated that 4200 hippos and 1000 other animals, including five wild dogs, succumbed to the disease in 1987. No wild dog has been reported in the area since the 1987 epidemic. The objectives of this study were: # to describe the epidemiology and the socio-economic impact of anthrax in the Luangwa Valley ; # to examine the control measures adopted when epidemics occur; # to suggest alternative methods of dealing with disease outbreaks in the light of a quantitative risk and cost benefit analyses. Data was collected from reports was undertaken at the veterinary department, the wildlife offices and the national archives. Informal discussions were held with the local community on anthrax epidemics using the rapid rural appraisal technique. Data on animal demographics and rainfall were collected from National Parks and Wildlife Service and the National Meteorological Department. Soil, faeces, and bone samples were collected where large numbers of carcasses had been found during epidemics in the Luangwa National Park. These samples were examined for viable anthrax spores by the Department of Scientific Services in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Information gleaned from official and verbal reports were collated and are presented in tabular from. The information found is inadequate to enable comprehensive quantitative risk and cost/benefit analyses. The economic cost of the disease arises mainly from the trade embargo resulting from veterinary quarantine regulations and the value of animal carcasses. Different scenarios were developed and are examined to present a risk analysis for proposed alternative control measures that could be adopted by the veterinary department when anthrax occurs in the Luangwa Valley. The probability of spreading anthrax by allowing trade in game trophies after treatment with formalin is estimated to be 0.0003-0.5. Although the impact of the disease on the economic utilisation of wild herbivores and community based natural resource management in the area has never been investigated the potential cost of anthrax epidemics is significant. The estimated cost of anthrax epidemics, depending on the size, as a result of the current disease control strategy are 124,3 – 2079,5 million Zambian Kwacha. The proposed alternative disease control measures could decrease the cost to 43,5 – 852, 6 million Zambian Kwacha. It is suggested that various measures be adopted to enable a better understanding of the dynamics of anthrax in the Luangwa Valley. These include : # the establishment of a veterinary unit with in the park # improved surveillance and reporting of diseases # regular censuses and estimates of population densities within the Park # improved communication between the veterinary Department and the Wildlife Authority.Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Tropical Diseases))--University of Pretoria, 2003.Veterinary Tropical Diseasesunrestricte

Detection of Parasites and Parasitic Infections of Free-Ranging Wildlife on a Game Ranch in Zambia: A Challenge for Disease Control

Ex-situ conservancies are expanding alternatives to livestock production in Zambia albeit the lack of information on circulating infectious parasites from wildlife. Therefore, 12 wildlife species were examined on a game ranch were all species were found to be infected by Rhipecephalus spp. Haemoparasite infections were estimated at 7.37% (n = 95) with Babesia spp. detected in bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus); Anaplasma marginale in impala (Aepyceros melampus) and puku (Kobus vardonii) for the first time in Zambia. The majority of worm species isolated from bovids were not detected in equids and, vice versa. Our findings intimate ecological and behavioural patterns of some animals as deterministic to exposure. Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) had the widest range of worm species with more infected organs than other animals suggesting their semi aquatic nature contributory to prolonged worm exposure compared to other animals. On the other hand, Kafue lechwe had the least tick infections attributable more to shorter attachment periods as they spend prolonged periods submerged in water. Our findings indicate the vital role that wildlife plays in the epidemiology of parasitic diseases. To reduce the infection burden, control measures should be focused on reducing transmission to highly susceptible animal species as described herein

A Review of Ecological Factors Associated with the Epidemiology of Wildlife Trypanosomiasis in the Luangwa and Zambezi Valley Ecosystems of Zambia

Trypanosomiasis has been endemic in wildlife in Zambia for more than a century. The disease has been associated with neurological disorders in humans. Current conservation strategies by the Zambian government of turning all game reserves into state-protected National Parks (NPs) and game management areas (GMAs) have led to the expansion of the wildlife and tsetse population in the Luangwa and Zambezi valley ecosystem. This ecological niche lies in the common tsetse fly belt that harbors the highest tsetse population density in Southern Africa. Ecological factors such as climate, vegetation and rainfall found in this niche allow for a favorable interplay between wild reservoir hosts and vector tsetse flies. These ecological factors that influence the survival of a wide range of wildlife species provide adequate habitat for tsetse flies thereby supporting the coexistence of disease reservoir hosts and vector tsetse flies leading to prolonged persistence of trypanosomiasis in the area. On the other hand, increase in anthropogenic activities poses a significant threat of reducing the tsetse and wildlife habitat in the area. Herein, we demonstrate that while conservation of wildlife and biodiversity is an important preservation strategy of natural resources, it could serve as a long-term reservoir of wildlife trypanosomiasis

Integration of Ecological and Socioeconomic Factors in Securing Wildlife Dispersal Corridors in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, Southern Africa

Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) are being established throughout southern Africa to integrating biodiversity conservation and rural development at the transboundary landscape scale. Among the nine TFCAs that have been established over the past 20 years, the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) TFCA) is the most grandiose in terms of size (≈ 520,000 Km2), number of partner countries involved (five), elephant (Loxodonta africana) population (≈ 199,031, which is the largest on the African continent), and encompasses 36 protected areas of various categories, interspaced by communal and private lands. The TFCA concept aims to ensure that key ecological processes continue to function where borders have divided ecosystems, and wildlife migration corridors. Attainment of this ecological objective is however being constrained by the anthropogenic threats, mostly poaching, and habitat fragmentation. These threats are being aggravated by the increasing human population, climate variability and underdeveloped rural livelihoods. To restore ecological processes, the following tactics have been recommended: (a) strengthening of transboundary law enforcement to effectively reduce poaching, and illegal offtake of timber; (b) establishment of “Stepping Stones” in the form of conservancies and fishing protected zones at wildlife crossing point on the major river systems; (c) reducing dependence on wood-fuel, and ensuring sustainable provision of affordable and reliable modern sources of energy; (d) adoption of the commodity-based trade standards in the production of beef for the export market to reduce the impact of veterinary fences on the dispersing wildlife; (e) implementation of early-season burning around all the sensitive biomes to protect them from the destructive late dry season fires; (f) adoption of conservation agriculture as a tool for improving land husbandry, intensification of agriculture, and decreasing the likelihood of cutting down forested areas to plant new agriculture fields; and (g) reducing the impact of climate variability on wildlife by providing artificial water – guided by environmental impact assessments. To enhance the socioeconomic development of the local communities and win them as allies in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors, the following actions should be adopted: (a) promotion of community-private partnerships in ecotourism development – alongside the establishment of a revolving loan fund to enable local communities’ access flexible source of capital for investment in ecotourism and auxiliary business opportunities; (b) promotion of biodiversity stewardship as an incentive for the local communities to commit their land to the sustenance of the wildlife dispersal corridors; (c) reducing human wildlife conflicts, through macro, meso and micro-level land-use planning to spatially delineate land committed to various categories, including protected areas, wildlife dispersal areas, and developed and communal areas; and (d) promotion of harmonised enabling policies and legislation to facilitate slowing down of human population growth, which is one of the prime triggers of habitat fragmentation in the KAZA TFCA

Concept Note: Aquaculture working group for CIS delivery and CSA scaling in Zambia

This concept note describes the strategy for setting up a Community of Practice (CoP) for Climate Information Services (CIS) delivery and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) Scaling for Zambia for Integrated agriculture aquaculture systems under the AICCRA project in Zambia. This document gives a background to climate change issues in the aquaculture sector in Zambia. It also explains what the bundle seeks to achieve, the objective of the CoP, its membership, expected results, and how the CoP will be set up

Sarcoptes mite epidemiology and treatment in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) calves captured for translocation from the Kafue game management area to game ranches

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>In Zambia, translocation of wildlife from National Parks to private owned game ranches demands that only animals free of infectious diseases that could adversely affect the expansion of the wildlife industry should be translocated to game ranches. <it>Sarcoptes </it>mange (<it>Sarcoptes scarbiei</it>) has been involved in the reduction of wildlife populations in some species.</p> <p>Results</p> <p><it>Sarcoptes </it>mange (<it>Sarcoptes scarbiei</it>) was detected and eradicated from two herds of African buffalo (<it>Syncerus caffer</it>) calves captured in the Kafue GMA in July 2004 and August 2005. The overall prevalence was estimated at 89.5% (77/86). Sex had no influence on the occurrence and severity of the disease. Of the 86 calves used in the study, 72.1% had good body condition scores, 20.9% were fair and 7.0% were poor. Of the 77 infected calves, 53.2% were mildly infected, 28.6% were moderately and 18.2% were severely infected. Body condition score was correlated to the severity of the infection (r = 0.72, p < 0.000, <it>n </it>= 86) at capture. Eradication of <it>Sarcoptes </it>mites from the entire herd using ivermetcin was dependant on the severity of the infection. The overall ability of ivermectin to clear the infection after the first treatment was estimated at 81.8% (<it>n </it>= 77). It increased to 94.8% and 100% after the second and third treatments respectively.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>This is the first report on the epidemiology and treatment of <it>Sarcoptes </it>mange in African buffaloes in Zambia. This study improves our understanding about <it>Sarcoptes scabiei </it>epidemiology and treatment which will have further applications for the safe animal translocation.</p

Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin Testing of Free-Ranging African Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) Captured for Ex Situ Conservation in the Kafue Basin Ecosystem in Zambia

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is endemic in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in some National Parks in Southern Africa, whilst no studies have been conducted on BTB on buffalo populations in Zambia. The increased demand for ecotourism and conservation of the African buffalo on private owned game ranches has prompted the Zambian Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and private sector in Zambia to generate a herd of “BTB-free buffaloes” for ex situ conservation. In the present study, 86 African buffaloes from four different herds comprising a total of 530 animals were investigated for the presence of BTB for the purpose of generating “BTB free” buffalo for ex-situ conservation. Using the comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CIDT) the BTB status at both individual animal and herd level was estimated to be 0.0% by the CIDT technique. Compared to Avian reactors only, a prevalence of 5.8% was determined whilst for Bovine-only reactors a prevalence of 0.0% was determined. These results suggest the likelihood of buffalo herds in the Kafue National Park being free of BTB

Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning (MEL) Plan for AICCRA Zambia

This Monitoring and Evaluation and Learning (MEL) Plan for the AICCRA project is a management tool that will help the project track and assess progress and achievements and make adjustments if necessary to ensure that the project can achieve its objectives intended results. The purpose of this MEL plan is: (i) to explain how the project will be monitored to determine whether the intended results are being achieved; (ii) to define the project data sources that will be used to verify the results achieved; (iii) to establish a process to alert implementers and stakeholders of any problems in project implementation and provide the basis for making any needed adjustments; and (iv) to describe information products such as reports and other written documentation that the project will produce and disseminate to its stakeholders, internal and external audiences

AICCRA Zambia Beneficiary Report

AICCRA Zambia partnered with agribusiness-based small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to increase access to climate information services for over 300,000 farmers negatively impacted by the effects of climate change. This partnership has resulted in 118,746 (36% women) smallholder farmers accessing and adopting climate smart agriculture technologies in the following agriculture value chains: off-grid solar irrigation; integrated aquaculture agriculture system; climate-smart seed varieties; and integrated mixed chicken/goats–legume system