The Impact of a Mindfulness Application (App) on the Mental Health of Injured College Athletes Experiencing Chronic Pain

Experiencing an injury can cause negative effects on an athlete’s mental health, including depression and anxiety, decreased self-esteem, isolation, loss of identity, and fear. Some athletes may experience chronic pain after an injury, defined as pain that lasts beyond the normal timespan of healing over three months, not including tissue damage. Most research on the psychological effects of sport injuries have focused on acute injuries rather than chronic injuries. Mindfulness, the ability of being fully present in a moment in time in one’s body, paying attention to physical sensations and feelings, has been found to improve mental health outcomes in athletes but has not yet been studied in injured athletes. PURPOSE: To investigate if using a mindfulness application for 10 days can decrease perception of pain, symptoms of depression, and increase mindfulness in athletes with chronic injuries. METHODS: Collegiate athletes experiencing chronic pain from a sport injury (N = 25; male = 16, female = 9) underwent a repeated measures design. During the initial visit, participants completed a Demographic/Sport/Injury Questionnaire, Visual Analog Scale (VAS) to measure perception of pain, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Participants assigned to the experimental group then downloaded a mindfulness application to their phone and completed one mindfulness session on the app per day for 10 days. After 10 days, participants returned to the laboratory and completed the VAS, BDI-II, and MAAS. RESULTS: A two-way repeated measures ANOVA test was conducted to assess differences in perception of pain, mindfulness, and depression symptoms over time between the control and experimental group. The results revealed an overall significant effect in perception of pain (F(1,23) = 6.4194, p = 0.019, ηp2 = 0.218), in that participants in the experimental group decreased in perception of pain (M = 1.019, SD = 0.970) more than those in the control group (M = 2.625, SD = 2.225).Likewise, a significant main effect on mindfulness was found (F(1,23) = 5.151, p = 0.033, ηp2 = 0.183), with those in the experimental group improving in mindfulness (M = 61.385, SD = 16.194) more so than those in the control group (M = 60.750, SD = 15.580). Finally, there was no significant main effect of depression symptoms (F(1,23) = 2.299 p = 0.143, ηp2 = 0.091). CONCLUSION: Our study determined that using the mindfulness app for 10 days produced a decrease in perception of pain and increase in mindfulness compared to the control condition, but did not appear to impact depression symptoms. This suggests that a 10-day mindfulness app intervention can be utilized to decrease perception of pain and improve mindfulness in collegiate athletes, thus improving their quality of life and athletic experience

Exploring the Differences in Stress Mindset between Former and Current College Student-Athletes

Stress is a universal experience, often believed to be negative, that has been linked with negative consequences. However, recent studies have shown that stress can lead to positive outcomes as well, including an increase in health and performance in a variety of domains. Research has also found one’s beliefs about the nature of stress (e.g., stress mindset) play a large role in the extent to which one experiences these beneficial outcomes of stress. Although two athletes may encounter the same stressor, their beliefs on stress impact whether they experience detrimental or enhancing outcomes resulting from the stressor. Given some athletes view pressures associated with sport participation as negative or harmful, sometimes resulting in the athlete terminating their sport participation, research is needed examining the stress mindset in current athletes and former athletes who retired or terminated their sport participation early. PURPOSE: To explore the differences, if any, in stress mindset and perceived amount of stress between current and former student-athletes. METHODS: A total of 113 students (n = 87 current athletes; n = 26 former athletes) participated in this study. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire and the Stress Mindset Measure (SMM) administered via an online survey tool. The SMM is a self-report assessment of participants’ beliefs about stress. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to assess differences in stress mindset and perceived amount of stress between former and current college athletes. RESULTS: There was no significant difference observed between former and current student-athletes stress mindset scores (U = 1231.5, p = .494, η2 = .004). Likewise, there was no significant difference observed between current and former athletes on perceived amount of current stress (U = 884, p = .171, η2 = .025). CONCLUSION: No statistically significant differences between groups in stress mindset scores or perceived stress were observed, but both current and former athletes were found to have a stress-is-debilitating mindset (i.e., they held negative beliefs about the nature of stress). Current student-athletes did report a slightly lower SMM score (M = 1.65) than former athletes (M = 1.8) and given that stress mindset reflects one’s view of the process of stress itself and not simply an appraisal of any given stressor, there may be a difference in the way student-athletes appraise their sport or stress stemming from their sport participation. As burnout was not measured in the present study, it is possible the current student-athletes in this study may be experiencing burnout but have not terminated their sport participation yet. Future studies should examine burnout in athletes alongside the stress mindset and should continue to explore this construct with a larger sample of former athletes

The Relationship Between Stress Mindset and Prior Injury in College Student-Athletes

Stress has often been associated with negative outcomes for both physical and mental health. However, there is also evidence that stress can yield positive outcomes, including health improvements and increased performance. Stress mindset, or how one evaluates or views the nature of stress, helps explain how stress can result in such extreme positive and negative outcomes. College students in the United States experience high levels of stress and have been found to view stress as more debilitating than enhancing. Stress also appears to play a role in athletic injury risk. An individual with particular risk factors, such as a previous injury, is more likely to appraise a situation as stressful, resulting in physiological or attentional changes that increases their level of risk for sustaining an injury. Research suggests that previous injuries can put an athlete at risk for another injury, however, research has also found previous injuries can result in significant growth and positive outcomes following the injury. One potential explanation for these two vastly different outcomes could be how the athlete views stress, such as an injury. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between stress mindset and previous injury in a college student-athlete population. METHODS: Current college student-athletes (N=87) over the age of 18 completed demographic information, previous injury history, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and Stress Mindset Measure (SMM) via Qualtrics, an online survey tool. A Spearman rank-order correlation was performed to assess the associations between stress mindset, perceived stress, and previous injury, as measured by total number of sport injuries, number of sport injuries over the previous 12 months, and the number or practice or competition days missed or modified due to injury. RESULTS: No significant relationship was observed for stress mindset and total number of sport injuries (rs (84) = -.008, p = .939). Likewise, no significant relationship was also found for stress mindset and injuries over the past year (rs (82) = -.053, p = .632). No significant relationship was found for stress mindset and injury days missed (rs (81) =.002, p =.983). Stress mindset was not related to previous injury in this study. However, the PSS was significantly positively related to the total number of sport injuries (rs (76) = .229, p = .044). CONCLUSION: No statistically significant relationship was found between stress mindset and previous injuries in current college student-athletes, consistent with findings from the only other study to date to examine the concept of stress mindset in conjunction with sport injury. However, a statistically significant relationship was found between perceived stress and total number of injuries, providing further support to the large body of research linking amount of stress and injury. Although the relationship between stress mindset and previous injury was nonsignificant in the present study, it is still possible that stress mindset may play a role in an athlete’s response to an injury, which was not assessed in this study. Thus, future research should explore how one’s stress mindset impacts an athlete’s response to an injury

A Qualitative Examination of Sport Retirement in Former NCAA Division I Athletes

Statistics indicate that the overwhelming majority of NCAA Division I college athletes will not continue in their sport professionally (NCAA, 2019). Therefore, there is a need to develop a deeper understanding of the variables that influence college athletes’ psychological health and well-being as they transition to retirement. The present study gathered detailed information about 15 former NCAA Division I college athletes’ retirement experiences four to five months post retirement. The findings suggested that the former college athletes had varied retirement experiences ranging from negative to positive. All college athletes who reported having a successful retirement transition described having at least one identified support group, stated they accomplished their athletic goals, indicated they had started pursuing other interests, and identified some positive aspects about their lives since retirement. Alternatively, the college athletes who reported having an unsuccessful retirement transition revealed they did not accomplish most of their athletic goals and struggled to identify any positive aspects about their lives since retirement. The findings of this study highlight the diversity in college athletes’ retirement experiences that can occur. Although there is still much more to ascertain about athlete retirement, this exploration into college athletes’ retirement experiences offers practical implications for athletes, coaches, practitioners, and those who want to provide support for a retiring athlete

The Effects of Music on Muscle Fatigue and Strength in Individuals with Previous Knee Injuries

Music can be used during physical activity for a variety of ergogenic, psychological, and psychophysical benefits. Listening to one’s preferred genre of music has been found to optimize arousal and increase motivation during an exercise bout that can lead to performance improvements. Rehabilitation patients often struggle to adhere to their rehabilitation for a variety of reasons, including lack of enjoyment, lack of progress, or even increased pain or fatigue. Therefore, incorporating music into a rehabilitation setting could help patients improve their strength and reduce fatigue, thus improving rehabilitation adherence. PURPOSE: To examine the effects of music preference on muscle fatigue and strength in individuals who suffered a previous knee injury. METHODS: Males (n = 14) and females (n = 10) between the ages of 18 and 55 (M = 23.21, SD = 6.77) who previously had an ACL, meniscus, PCL, MCL, or LCL injury (with or without surgical intervention) between one but no more than 13 years ago participated in this study. A randomized crossover design was used with each participant completing three days of testing (no music, preferred music, and non-preferred music as determined via a questionnaire at initial visit) with each session occurring at least 48 hours apart. During every session, participants first warmed up on a cycle ergometer at 50 watts for five minutes before undergoing a Thortensson fatigue test via the Biodex dynamometer. Measures of quadriceps strength and quadriceps fatigue were collected. During the two music conditions, music was played via a speaker throughout both the warm-up and Thortensson fatigue test. RESULTS: One-way repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted to assess for differences in quadriceps fatigue and strength across all three conditions. No significant differences were found across conditions in quadriceps fatigue (F(2,46) = 0.682, p = 0.510, ηp2 = 0.029) or quadriceps strength (F(2,46) = 1.447, p = 0.246, ηp2 = 0.059). CONCLUSION: There was no difference in muscular fatigue or strength between the three conditions. Therefore, listening to one’s preferred music may not improve strength or reduce fatigue in a rehabilitation setting. Rehabilitation practitioners should consider that music may not be the most effective strategy to increase muscular strength or reduce fatigue in a rehabilitation setting and should explore other techniques that could help address these variables and improve rehabilitation adherence

Effect of Acute Exercise Mode on Test Anxiety: Aerobic vs. Resistance

Test anxiety is a specific type of state anxiety when a person experiences perceived pressure to excel on a test. Test anxiety not only hinders test performance, but the person\u27s long term psychophysiological health. Many students struggle with test anxiety, but females have a higher incidence of test anxiety than males. Bouts of aerobic exercise have been shown to decrease state anxiety, but no work has been done examining the effects of resistant training on state anxiety. PURPOSE: the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of acute aerobic and resistance exercise bouts on test anxiety among recreationally active females. METHODS: Recreationally females (n=30, 23±4 yr., 79±15 kg, 161±7 cm) participated in three experimental trials [bout of aerobic exercise (AER), bout of resistance exercise (RES); and a control bout with no exercise (CON)] where a balanced cross-over design was used. During the exercise bouts the subjects were required to exercise at a moderate intensity equal to 40%-59% of their peak oxygen consumption rate, which was determined relative to the subject\u27s age predicted maximal heart rate (65-75% HRmax). Subjects were asked to perform the exercise bout in their target heart rate range (65-75% HRmax) for approximately 20 min. For the CON trial, the subject rested quietly for 20 min. After each bout, the subjects were required to take a standardized mathematics examination where they were told that they would be classified based on how they performed (good, average, poor). At the beginning, middle, and end of the standardized math exam perceived test anxiety (emotionality, worry, overall) was assessed via the Spielberg’s Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI). TAI scores were not different between the three administrations (p\u3e0.05), so the middle assessment was used for the subsequent analyses. RESULTS: The exercise heart rates (Mn + SD) did not differ(p\u3e0.05) between exercise trials at 10 min (AER= 133.6 + 3.8 bpm; RES=133 + 4.1 bpm) and 20 min (AER=133.5 + 3.3 bpm; RES=134.3 + 3.5 bpm), confirming that subjects were in a steady state and that exercise intensities were similar between the modes. Perceived emotionality (TAI score=8-32) was not different (p\u3e0.05) between trials (Md, Range: CON=18,8-31; AER=19,8-32; RES= 18,8-32). Perceived worry (TAI score= 8-32) was not different (p\u3e0.05) between trials (Md, Range: CON=16, 8-32); AER=18, 8-32; RES=17, 9-32). Overall anxiety scores (TAI score=20-78) was not different (p\u3e0.05) between trials (Md, Range: CON=46, 20-78); AER=49, 20-75; RES= 46, 24-73). CONCLUSION: Acute exercise had no effect on test anxiety in the recreationally active young females who participated in the study, regardless of mode. It is possible that the test administration in the study did not effectively simulate the anxiety-inducing effects of a test in a real-world setting

Understanding Self-Talk on a Mirror Tracing Task: A Qualitative Inquiry

Gaining a better understanding of self-talk (ST) or interior dialogue while performing a novel psychomotor task (mirror tracing task) was explored using a phenomenological approach in which recorded results were compared to the ST data of diverse research disciplines. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to more fully understand ST (what) and its reported functions (why) while performing a fine motor task. METHODS: Participants, asked to complete three trials of the task, were presented with two open-ended questions regarding their inherent ST before, during and after each trial of the task: (1) self-reported ST, “What specific ST are you currently engaging in?” and (2) self-reported ST function, “Why are you engaging in the specific ST you just reported?” The responses of the 19 participants (over 14,500 words) were audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. The recorded data were coded using groupings derived from existing literature and categorized based upon inductive reasoning (emergent from collected data). RESULTS: Our results have revealed the use of motivational, instructional, positive, and negative ST (e.g., “I can do this!”, “Stay between the line”, and “Oh, no!”) before, during and after each trial of the task. Additionally, unique categories of ST emerged, such as ‘prayer’ and ‘no ST’. CONCLUSION: We expected to find instructional and negative ST due to the difficulty and type of task, based upon the majority of current research. The results of this study are beneficial to improving our insight into the array of ST used while performing a difficult and novel fine motor task. The information collected from this study can be used as a foundation toward further understanding ST during other novel tasks and recommend its further study in a variety of disciplines

A Comparison of an Aerobic Exercise Program and a Resistance Training Program on Cognitive Functioning in Healthy College Students

Cognitive functioning declines begin occurring as early as 30 years of age. Research has found evidence that exercise influences cognitive functioning in elderly patients with Alzheimer\u27s and dementia. However, while cognitive functioning has often been linked to academic achievement, there is a lack of research examining exercise and cognitive functioning in young and healthy populations. Furthermore, research has found both aerobic and resistance training can impact cognitive functioning, but there is a lack of literature comparing the impact of exercise mode on cognitive functioning. PURPOSE: To explore the differences between an aerobic and resistance training program on cognitive functioning in healthy college students. METHODS: A total of 15 students (n = 6 M, n = 9 F) participated in this study. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire and the Stroop Effect Test with two congruent tables and one incongruent. Participants were then randomly assigned to either an aerobic or resistance training program. Participants assigned to the aerobic program cycled for 30 minutes at 60-70% of their age-predicted maximal heart rate. Participants in the resistance program completed a machine-based protocol consisting of ten strength exercises at 70% of their theoretical 1RM. These participants performed three sets of 12 repetitions in any order with 30-60 seconds of rest between exercises. All participants completed their assigned exercise protocol three times a week for four weeks. At the end of the exercise protocol, the participants completed the Stroop Effect Test a second time. An independent-samples t-test was calculated to compare mean Stroop Effect Test scores for participants in both training groups. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare Stroop Effect Test pre-test and post-test scores for all participants. RESULTS: No significant difference was found (t(13) = .699, p = .497 g = .362) between Stroop Effect Test scores of the aerobic training group (M = 4.75, SD = 9.33) and the resistance training group (M = 7.71, SD = 6.63). A significant increase in Stroop Effect Test scores from pre-test (M = 43.80, SD = 8.44) to post-test (M = 49.93, SD = 10.23) was found (t(14) = -2.95, p = .01, d = .654) for participants, regardless of exercise protocol. CONCLUSION: No significant difference in Stroop Effect Test scores between the aerobic and resistance group suggests that there is no difference between type of exercise and cognitive improvements in healthy college students. Results showed a significant improvement from the Stroop Effect Test pre-test and post-test scores for participants in both exercise groups, providing further evidence that exercise can improve cognitive function, regardless of exercise mode

A Comparison of Resistance Exercise to Aerobic Exercise on Cognitive Processing Speed in Young Adults

Processing speed is the progression by which an individual receives information, begins to understand it, and then responds to it. Processing speed affects academic performance and research has established a positive relationship between exercise and processing speed. While the majority of research on cognition has focused on aerobic exercise, several studies have still demonstrated resistance exercise can improve cognitive abilities, including processing speed. However, these studies have relied primarily on a more tradition approach with free weights and machines. Additionally, there are a lack of studies directly comparing these modes of exercise (aerobic vs. resistance) and the appropriate duration of exercise to improve processing speed is not fully understood. PURPOSE: To explore if an acute 10-minute bout of resistance exercise, using body weight and resistance bands, compares to aerobic exercise on cognitive processing speed in young adults. METHODS: Healthy young adults (N = 29; male = 15, female = 14) underwent a repeated measures design with one control and two experimental conditions (aerobic, resistance). Visits took place at least 48 hours, but no more than 72 hours apart. During the control visit, participants completed the Symbol Search Subtest from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) via Inquisit computer software, a validated measure of processing speed. During the two experimental conditions, participants completed a 10-minute bout of moderate intensity aerobic or resistance exercise, determined by heart rate reserve response (40-59% of HRR). Following the brief exercise bout, the Symbol Search subtest was administered 11 minutes post-activity during the optimal window of assessment, as previously determined. RESULTS: A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to assess differences in processing speed across the conditions (control, aerobic, and resistance). The results revealed an overall significant effect (F(2,56) = 28.18, p \u3c 0.001, ηp2= 0.502) between the three conditions. Follow-up pairwise comparisons revealed participants performed better on processing speed following aerobic exercise compared to the control condition (p \u3c 0.001), and performed better following resistance exercise compared to the control condition (p \u3c 0.001). However, no statistically significant difference was found on processing speed between the aerobic exercise and resistance exercise conditions (p = 0.300). CONCLUSION: Our study compared a brief bout of aerobic and resistance exercise and determined that both resistance and aerobic exercise produced improvements in processing speed compared to the control condition, but no difference was found between the two exercise conditions. This suggests that a brief 10-minute bout of moderate intensity aerobic or resistance exercise can be utilized to improve processing speed in healthy college-aged students. Given the large number (40-50%) of college students in the U.S. who are inactive and report time as a barrier to exercise, either 10-minute bout of exercise used in the current study may be feasible for healthy young adults to engage in prior to performing tasks in which processing speed is essential, for example, timed examinations

The influence of coach turnover on student-athletes' affective states and team dynamics: An exploratory study in collegiate sports

Coach turnover is frequent, especially in collegiate sports in the United States. To date, however, there is limited research on how coach turnover might affect student-athletes. Accordingly, we aimed to qualitatively explore how coach turnover might influence student-athletes’ psychosocial states and team dynamics in collegiate sports. Eleven athletic teams at a Midwestern Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association institution having undergone coach turnover during the past four years participated in the study. Four coaches and 21 student-athletes representing both individual and team sports, as well as two administrative staff members, participated in semi-structured interviews (coaches and administrators) and focus groups (student-athletes). Inductive data analysis revealed four first level themes: coach style and background, athlete affective states, team dynamics, and program culture. Our analysis suggested that, depending on their gender and coaching style, coaches might have a positive or negative impact on athletes’ affective states (e.g. positive and negative affect), team dynamics (e.g. cohesion; athlete leadership), and the program culture. Thus, practitioners might facilitate the positive impact of coaching turnover by assessing whether the new coach is a ‘good fit’ at the individual (micro), team (meso), and environmental (macro) level of analysis