Understanding the Permafrost–Hydrate System and Associated Methane Releases in the East Siberian Arctic Shelf

This paper summarizes current understanding of the processes that determine the dynamics of the subsea permafrost–hydrate system existing in the largest, shallowest shelf in the Arctic Ocean; the East Siberian Arctic Shelf (ESAS). We review key environmental factors and mechanisms that determine formation, current dynamics, and thermal state of subsea permafrost, mechanisms of its destabilization, and rates of its thawing; a full section of this paper is devoted to this topic. Another important question regards the possible existence of permafrost-related hydrates at shallow ground depth and in the shallow shelf environment. We review the history of and earlier insights about the topic followed by an extensive review of experimental work to establish the physics of shallow Arctic hydrates. We also provide a principal (simplified) scheme explaining the normal and altered dynamics of the permafrost–hydrate system as glacial–interglacial climate epochs alternate. We also review specific features of methane releases determined by the current state of the subsea-permafrost system and possible future dynamics. This review presents methane results obtained in the ESAS during two periods: 1994–2000 and 2003–2017. A final section is devoted to discussing future work that is required to achieve an improved understanding of the subject

Sonar gas flux estimation by bubble insonification: application to methane bubble flux from seep areas in the outer Laptev Sea

Sonar surveys provide an effective mechanism for mapping seabed methane flux emissions, with Arctic submerged permafrost seepage having great potential to significantly affect climate. We created in situ engineered bubble plumes from 40 m depth with fluxes spanning 0.019 to 1.1 L s−1 to derive the in situ calibration curve (Q([sigma])). These nonlinear curves related flux (Q) to sonar return ([sigma]) for a multibeam echosounder (MBES) and a single-beam echosounder (SBES) for a range of depths. The analysis demonstrated significant multiple bubble acoustic scattering - precluding the use of a theoretical approach to derive Q([sigma]) from the product of the bubble [sigma] (r) and the bubble size distribution where r is bubble radius. The bubble plume σ occurrence probability distribution function ([PSI]([sigma])) with respect to Q found [PSI] ([sigma]) for weak σ well described by a power law that likely correlated with small-bubble dispersion and was strongly depth dependent. [PSI] ([sigma]) for strong σ was largely depth independent, consistent with bubble plume behavior where large bubbles in a plume remain in a focused core. [PSI] ([sigma]) was bimodal for all but the weakest plumes

Role of Salt Migration in Destabilization of Intra Permafrost Hydrates in the Arctic Shelf: Experimental Modeling

Destabilization of intrapermafrost gas hydrate is one possible reason for methane emission on the Arctic shelf. The formation of these intrapermafrost gas hydrates could occur almost simultaneously with the permafrost sediments due to the occurrence of a hydrate stability zone after sea regression and the subsequent deep cooling and freezing of sediments. The top of the gas hydrate stability zone could exist not only at depths of 200–250 m, but also higher due to local pressure increase in gas-saturated horizons during freezing. Formed at a shallow depth, intrapermafrost gas hydrates could later be preserved and transform into a metastable (relict) state. Under the conditions of submarine permafrost degradation, exactly relict hydrates located above the modern gas hydrate stability zone will, first of all, be involved in the decomposition process caused by negative temperature rising, permafrost thawing, and sediment salinity increasing. That’s why special experiments were conducted on the interaction of frozen sandy sediments containing relict methane hydrates with salt solutions of different concentrations at negative temperatures to assess the conditions of intrapermafrost gas hydrates dissociation. Experiments showed that the migration of salts into frozen hydrate-containing sediments activates the decomposition of pore gas hydrates and increase the methane emission. These results allowed for an understanding of the mechanism of massive methane release from bottom sediments of the East Siberian Arctic shelf

Signatures of Molecular Unification and Progressive Oxidation Unfold in Dissolved Organic Matter of the Ob-Irtysh River System along Its Path to the Arctic Ocean

The Ob-Irtysh River system is the seventh-longest one in the world. Unlike the other Great Siberian rivers, it is only slightly impacted by the continuous permafrost in its low flow. Instead, it drains the Great Vasyugan mire, which is the world largest swamp, and receives huge load of the Irtysh waters which drain the populated lowlands of the East Siberian Plain. The central challenge of this paper is to understand the processes responsible for molecular transformations of natural organic matter (NOM) in the Ob-Irtysh river system along the South-North transect. For solving this task, the NOM was isolated from the water samples collected along the 3,000?km transect using solid-phase extraction. The NOM samples were further analyzed using high resolution mass spectrometry and optical spectroscopy. The obtained results have shown a distinct trend both in molecular composition and diversity of the NOM along the South-North transect: the largest diversity was observed in the Southern “swamp-wetland” stations. The samples were dominated with humic and lignin-like components, and enriched with aminosugars. After the Irtysh confluence, the molecular nature of NOM has changed drastically: it became much more oxidized and enriched with heterocyclic N-containing compounds. These molecular features are very different from the aliphatics-rich permafrost NOM. They witnesses much more conservative nature of the NOM discharged into the Arctic by the Ob-Irtysh river system. In general, drastic reduction in molecular diversity was observed in the northern stations located in the lower Ob flow

Sonar Estimation of Methane Bubble Flux from Thawing Subsea Permafrost: A Case Study from the Laptev Sea Shelf

Seeps found offshore in the East Siberian Arctic Shelf may mark zones of degrading subsea permafrost and related destabilization of gas hydrates. Sonar surveys provide an effective tool for mapping seabed methane fluxes and monitoring subsea Arctic permafrost seepage. The paper presents an overview of existing approaches to sonar estimation of methane bubble flux from the sea floor to the water column and a new method for quantifying CH4 ebullition. In the suggested method, the flux of methane bubbles is estimated from its response to insonification using the backscattering cross section. The method has demonstrated its efficiency in the case study of single- and multi-beam acoustic surveys of a large seep field on the Laptev Sea shelf

Lithological features of surface sediment and their influence on organic m atter distribution across the East-Siberian Arctic shelf

The Arctic is undergoing rapid climate change, which affects the global and regional carbon cycles. The East Siberian Arctic shelf, that is believed to store huge amounts of organic carbon in different pools, has been the subject of growing scientific interest in recent decades. The aim of the work was to study the lithological features of bottom sediments on the East Siberian Arctic shelf and to assess their influence on the spatial distribution of organic material in the study area. Materials and methods. The sediment samples were collected during the 45-day multidisciplinary SWERUS-C3 expedition on IB ODEN in summer 2014. Surface sediments from inner and middle East Siberian Arctic shelf were collected in summer 2008 during the International Siberian Shelf Study (ISSS-08) campaign onboard the HV Yakob Smirnitsky. The samples were analyzed for the grain size and specific surface area characteristics and total organic carbon content. It is shown that the subglacial sedimentation and the accumulation of predominantly fine-grained sediments prevail within the study area. Nevertheless, atypical sand zones were identified on the outer shelf. The authors have suggested several external factors, including modern and paleo ice scouring in the early Holocene, and intensive gas venting, which are accompanied by removal of fine-grained sediments. The paper considers spatial distribution of organic matter in the bottom sediments of the East Siberian Arctic shelf and its interrelation with their lithological properties

Discovery and characterization of submarine groundwater discharge in the Siberian Arctic seas: A case study in Buor-Khaya Gulf, Laptev Sea

It has been suggested that increasing freshwater discharge to the Arctic Ocean may also occur as submarine groundwater discharge (SGD), yet there are no direct observations of this phenomenon in the Arctic shelf seas. This study tests the hypothesis that SGD does exist in the Siberian-Arctic shelf seas but its dynamics may be largely controlled by complicated geocryological conditions such as permafrost. The field-observational approach in the southeast Laptev Sea used a combination of hydrological (temperature, salinity), geological (bottom sediment drilling, geoelectric surveys) and geochemical (224Ra, 223Ra and 222Rn) techniques. Active SGD was documented in the vicinity of the Lena River delta with two different operational modes. In the first system, groundwater discharges through tectonogenic permafrost talik zones was registered in both wintertime and summertime seasons. The second SGD mechanism was cryogenic squeezing out of brine and water-soluble salts detected on the periphery of ice hummocks in the wintertime season. The proposed mechanisms of groundwater transport and discharge in the arctic land-shelf system is elaborated. Through salinity versus 224Ra and 224Ra/223Ra diagrams, the three main SGD-influenced water masses were identified and their end-member composition was constrained. Further studies should apply these techniques to a broader scale with the objective to reach an estimate of the relative importance of the SGD transport vector relative to surface freshwater discharge for both the water balance and aquatic components such as dissolved organic carbon, carbon dioxide, methane, and nutrients

Geochemical characteristics of organic matter in bottom sediments in Ivashkina Lagoon (Bykovsky Peninsula, Laptev Sea)

Актуальность. В настоящее время для прогнозирования глобальных климатических изменений особое значение имеет исследование природных механизмов функционирования арктической биогеохимической экосистемы с применением различных методов и аналитических подходов. Органическое вещество современных донных осадков, аккумулирующее гетерогенные сигналы различных процессов транспорта и трансформации углерода, является индикатором уникальных особенностей седиментогенеза и диагенеза осадков. Использование наборов высокоточных геохимических инструментов позволяет получить важную информацию о вкладе аллохтонной и автохтонной компоненты в состав органического вещества и таким образом внести вклад в понимание отдельных элементов современного арктического цикла углерода. Цель исследования заключается в определении литологических и органо-геохимических особенностей отложений, накопленных в специфических лагунных условиях прибрежной части моря Лаптевых (Ивашкина лагуна, Быковский полуостров). Материалы и методы. Объектом исследования был выбран разрез осадков в районе дельты реки Лена. Для оценки изменчивости молекулярного состава органического вещества в процессе накопления толщ осадков был исследован 18-метровый интервал керна скважины VD-13, пробуренной в центральной части Ивашкиной лагуны во время весенней арктической экспедиции 2013 г. Для образцов были определены их гранулометрические характеристики, а также проведены пиролитические и хромато-масс-спектрометрические исследования. Показано, что повышенное содержание органического углерода (Сорг) в разрезе приурочено к пелитовой фракции осадков. Распределение н-алканов характеризуется доминированием высокомолекулярных нечетных гомологов, что указывает на повсеместно определяющий вклад высшей наземной растительности в формирование органического вещества, аккумулируемого в осадках. Тем не менее, вклад потенциально миграционной органической компоненты не исключен, так как для ряда образцов отмечается присутствие низкомолекулярной фракции н-алканов. Результаты пиролитического анализа образцов указывают на резкую изменчивость содержания Сорг и летучих органических соединений с глубиной.Studying Arctic biogeochemical ecosystem with various methods and approaches is of vital importance to further predict future global climate changes. Organic matter of modern bottom sediments, which accumulates heterogeneous signals of various processes of carbon transport and transformation, acts as the unique indicator of initial depositional environment of sediment and its diagenetic history. Using high-precision geochemical instruments allows us to obtain important information on potential input of both allochthonous and autochthonous components to organic matter, and thus to further promote understanding of the modern Arctic carbon cycle. The aim of the research is to study the lithological and organo-geochemical features of the sediments accumulated in the specific lagoon conditions of the coastal part of the Laptev Sea (Ivashkina Lagoon, Bykovsky Peninsula). Materials and methods. Precipitation in the area of the Lena river delta was selected as an object of the study. To assess the variability of molecular composition of organic matter in accumulation of sediments, the 18--meter interval of the VD-13 well, drilled in the central part of the Ivashkina lagoon during the 2013 spring Arctic expedition, was investigated. For the samples, their granulometric characteristics were determined, and pyrolytic and chromatography-mass spectrometric studies were conducted as well. It is shown that the increased content of organic carbon in the section is confined to the pelitic fraction of sediments. The distribution of n-alkanes is characterized by the dominance of high molecular weight odd homologues, which indicates the ubiquitous contribution of higher terrestrial vegetation to formation of organic matter accumulated in sediments. However, the contribution of the potentially migratory organic component is not excluded, since the presence of a low molecular weight fraction of n-alkanes is noted for a number of samples. The results of the pyrolytic analysis of the samples indicate a sharp variability in the content of Corg and volatile organic compounds with depth

Lithological features and organic matter of sediments in the south-eastern Laptev sea (Muostakh Cape)

Актуальность исследования продиктована необходимостью изучения современных изменений климата, которые рассматриваются как последствия парникового эффекта, обусловленного ростом содержания в атмосфере основных парниковых газов -двуокиси углерода и метана. Для изучения этой проблемы и построения модели климата необходимо проведение комплексных исследований в системе суша-шельф-атмосфера на Арктическом шельфе, включая оценку потенциала морей Восточной Арктики в контексте особенностей литологического состава и трансформации органического вещества в углеводороды в процессе диагенетических и катагенетических преобразований. Цель: изучение литологического и минералогического составов, изменчивости содержания органического вещества (Сорг), молекулярного и изотопного состава углерода (δ13C) в отложениях ледового комплекса побережья моря Лаптевых (мыс Муастах). Объект: пробы современных донных осадков, отобранных в ходе проведения экспедиционных работ 2015 г. в юго-восточной части моря Лаптевых. Методика исследования донных отложений включает в себя пробоподготовку, лабораторно-аналитические исследования (хроматомасс-спектрометрия, пиролиз, изотопия, рентгенофазовый анализ, методы обработки и интерпретации результатов). Результаты. Изучен минералогический состав глинистой фракции, установлена зональность распределения глинистых минералов. Выявлены особенности состава органического вещества на молекулярном и изотопном уровнях. Получены первые результаты по потенциалу генерации углеводородов из органического вещества осадков ледового комплекса, которые доминируют в мелководной части Восточно-Сибирского шельфа. Результаты исследований, полученные по данным пиролиза и хроматомассспектрометрии, имеют высокую степень корреляции и отражают комплекс биохимических процессов, сопровождающих превращение органического вещества на различных стадиях литогенеза. Кроме того, приведены первые оценки потенциала генерации легких углеводородов из Сорг исследуемых осадков.The present study seeks to improve current understanding of modern climate changes, which are considered as the consequences of the greenhouse effect caused by increasing content of the main greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide and methane. Complex studies in the land-shelf-atmosphere system across the Arctic shelf, including biogeochemical and lithological analyses of sediments across Eastern Arctic seas, are needed. The research aims to study both lithological and mineralogical sediment compositions, variability of the organic matter content (Corg), molecular and isotopic composition of carbon (δ13C) contained in the ice complex deposits (ICD) along the Laptev Sea coast (Cape Muostakh). Samples of modern bottom sediments obtained during the expedition of 2015 in the south-eastern part of the Laptev Sea were investigated. Methods used in the present study include GC:MS analysis, pyrolysis, isotope analysis, X:ray phase analysis followed by further numerical processing and interpretation. Results. The mineralogical composition of the clay fraction has been studied, and the distribution of clay minerals has been established. The features of molecular and isotopic Corg composition are revealed. Initial results on the hydrocarbon source of ICD:Corg, which dominates in the shallow part of the East Siberian Arctic shelf, are obtained. Pyrolysis and GC:MS data are highly correlated reflecting complex biogeochemical processes occurring during the Corg transformation at the various stages of lithogenesis. In addition, the study provides preliminary estimates of the light hydrocarbons generation potential for the Corg contained in the sediments. The aim of the work is to study the chemical composition of biological water of individual organs and tissues, on the example of domestic pigs, to obtain background characteristics for biogeochemical monitoring. The methods. Organs and tissues of seven-month domestic pig was sampled in Uspenka village, Pavlodar region (Kazakhstan) just after the slaughter and packed in plastics packages. Biological water was exudated by vacuum sublimation method upon the application of heat. The exudate was analyzed in certificated scientific-education center «Water» at Tomsk Polytechnic University by the method of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry according to the certified HCAM 480X method with NeXION 300D spectrometer. Result. The authors have studied the composition and characteristics of distribution of 70 chemical elements in biological water, separated by vacuum sublimation from the organs and tissues of the domestic pig, selected on the territory of the conditionally environmentally friendly village Uspenka, Pavlodar region. The interrelation between the elemental composition of the biological fluid and the physiological functions of the organs of the animals studied as well as the composition of the habitat was revealed