Putting theory to work: the use of theory in construction research

Attention to epistemology, theory use and citation practices are all issues which distinguish academic disciplines from other ways of knowing. Examples from construction research are used to outline and reflect on these issues. In doing so, the discussion provides an introduction to some key issues in social research as well as a reflection on the current state of construction research as a field. More specifically, differences between positivist and interpretivist epistemologies, the role of theory in each and their use by construction researchers are discussed. Philosophical differences are illustrated by appeal to two published construction research articles by Reichstein et al. and Harty on innovation (Reichstein, Salter and Gann, 2005; Harty, 2008). An analysis of citations for each highlights different cumulativity strategies. The potential contribution of mixed research programmes, combining positivist and interpretivist research, is evaluated. The paper should be of interest to early researchers and to scholars concerned with the ongoing development of construction research as an academic field

Jack-in-the-black-box: using Foucault to explore the embeddedness and reach of building level assessment method

Environmental policy in Western countries is marked by extensive reliance on voluntary self-regulation, designed to influence market behavior. In many instances, these policy tools fail to deliver on their promise, while nonetheless influencing professional and user behavior. This paper draws on Foucault's theory of governmentality and the Sociology of Standards to explore the effect of voluntary policy tools. Whereas most research focuses on the effect of tools on either intended outcomes or formal policies, this paper considers their effect on the people who directly engage with them. The paper uses the case of the Building Research Establishments Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) to consider the embeddedness and reach of policy tools across communities of practice. The contribution of the paper lies in its focus on the way in which organizational features of BREEAM contribute to its effect on the definition of green building and peoples’ engagement with them. Theoretically, the focus on organizational aspects of governing techniques draws attention local variations in the power/knowledge effect of techniques, thereby contributing to a relatively neglected aspect of governmentality. The paper concludes with reflection on the relevance of this approach for research into other types of policy tools and technical standards

How did we get opaque windows? - Mutual constitution of technology and the built environment

Construction professionals are continually faced with the challenge of incorporating new technology into their buildings. Much of the current research treats innovations as a discrete entity, thereby overlooking the system properties of many innovations. Far from a bolt on process, implementation often involves extensive accommodation of both the technology and the building. Failure to appreciate this poses significant challenges to the project team, with unintended consequences for the project as a whole. A social construction of technology (SCOT) approach is used to explore the integration of Building Integrated Photovoltaic technology (BIPV) into three commercial projects. By exploring the succession of problems and solutions shaping the uptake of BIPV, the analysis also documents the mutual constitution of both the technology and the building in which it is located. The interest of BIPV lies in the bespoke, system nature of the innovation. Three decision modes are identified which help to explain how solutions can “lock in” features of either the technology or the building, often at the expense of the desired outcome. The research gives practical insights into how the incorporation of technology can shape the building into which it sits and how this processes occurs

Controverses et styles de raisonnement

La sociologie des sciences traite les controverses comme un objet privilégié pour examiner l’hétérogénéité des considérations à l’œuvre dans la production du savoir scientifique. L’étude des débats sur l’usage des tables de mortalité pour analyser, en France et en Angleterre, les statistiques de population au xixe siècle étend l’enquête aux différences entre nations, à propos de la façon dont sont articulés les différents types de considérations. En Angleterre, les différentes considérations — techniques, épistémologiques, politiques, institutionnelles — sont fortement intégrées, alors qu’elles suivent en France des logiques différentes. Cette comparaison suggère également que les controverses peuvent être analysées comme l’un des nombreux types de micro-événements lors de l’introduction (ou du rejet) de nouvelles formes de raisonnement statistique (introduction de formes inférentielles de raisonnement en Angleterre dès 1844, résistance des statisticiens français, en opposition aux mathématiciens, à de telles formes). À partir des relations entre mode d’argumentation et styles de raisonnement, l’article suggère une explication institutionnelle pour des différences nationales à partir d’éléments qui proviennent des controverses elles-mêmes.The sociology of science tends to treat controversies as a privileged object to document the heterogeneity of considerations at play in the production of scientific knowledge. An examination of 19th century debates over the use of mortality tables in the analysis of population statistics in France and Britain extends this problematic by inquiring into national variations in the way in which different types of considerations are articulated. In England technical, epistemological, political and institutional considerations prove to be highly integrated whereas in France they follow separate logics. This comparison also suggests that controversies can be analysed as one of the many types of micro-events in the introduction (or rejection) of new forms of statistical reasoning (introduction of inferential forms of reasoning in England as early as 1844 and the resistance of French statisticians, in counter-distinction with mathematicians, to similar forms). The article speculates on the relation between modes of argumentation and styles of reasoning and suggests an institutional explanation for national differences based on traces found within the controversies themselves

Tracing client interests in the course of a project: why are some client interests incorporated whereas others are not?

Many construction professionals and policy-makers would agree that client expectations should be accommodated during a building project. However, this aspiration is not easy to deal with as there may be conflicting interests within a client organization and these may change over time in the course of a project. This research asks why some client interests, and not others, are incorporated into the development of a building project. Actor-Network Theory (ANT) is used to study a single building project on a University campus. The building project is analysed as a number of discussions and negotiations, in which actors persuade each other to choose one solution over another. The analysis traces dynamic client engagement in decision-making processes as available options became increasingly constrained. However, this relative loss of control was countered by clients who continued the control over the timing of participants' involvement, and thus the way to impose their interests even at the later stage of the project

Role conflict in project team dynamics

Project team dynamics may be affected by mismatches between formal and informal sources of expectations. Conflicting or unclear expectations have not yet been studied closely in construction projects. Using role theory, the effect of such phenomena on project team dynamics was studied in construction projects. Most research into role theory relies on survey data; however, this study takes a qualitative approach. For a public project, contracts were studied, project meetings were observed, and semi-structured interviews with the major members of the design team were carried out to identify formal and informal sources of role expectations. Analysis focused on the misalignment of these sources. A model was developed to help explain project team dynamics and the interaction of formal and informal sources of role expectations. Findings reveal that underspecified roles and responsibilities within contracts and plans of works effected role interactions and ultimately team dynamics

Client engagement and building design: the view from actor network theory

Abstract: The accommodation of client expectations in a construction project is challenging. This is, in part, because a client is rarely a single individual and their expectations are rarely static. This paper uses the actor network theory (ANT) concepts of problematization, enrolment and durability to explore client engagement. The contribution of ANT lies in its (ontological) model of distributed agency, fluid heterogeneous networks and associated effects. A pilot study of a single building project provides an opportunity to theorize the different ways that clients engage in the development of a building.. Client engagement differs with the direct versus mediated presence of different client actors, with the devices used to mediate negotiations and with the relative materiality of the network. The findings move the discussion of client engagement beyond the usual calls for better integration to an awareness of the mechanisms by which clients engage. Some decisions are fixed in material objects, while others remain open to ongoing negotiation. There is a need for explicit and continuous interaction and better awareness of when and how decisions are fixed. This would help all participants to deal with the complex and dynamic landscape of people, organizations and interests usually labelled as ‘client’

Incorporation of different and changing client interests in the course of a project

There is a widespread assumption that clients’ expectations should be accommodated during a building project. However, there may be conflicting expectations within a client organization and these may change over time in the course of a project. Actor-Network Theory (ANT) is used to study the incorporation of client expectations into the on-going development of a building project. To illustrate this, negotiations over a particular decision, namely the location of a building on one university campus was analysed. Negotiations went through a number of stages, involving a master plan architect, members of the public, campus maps and the Vice Chancellor. An ANT analysis helped to trace diverse actors' interests in a series of discussions and how these interests conflict with each other as one option was chosen over another. The analysis revealed new client interests in each negotiation process. Also, the prioritisation of client interests changed over time. The documentation of diverse and dynamic client interests especially contributes to the understanding of how some client interests fail to be incorporated in decision-making processe

Framing evidence: policy design for the zero carbon home

In 2006 the UK government announced a move to zero carbon homes by 2016. The demand posed a major challenge to policy makers and construction professionals entailing a protracted process of policy design. The task of giving content to this target is used to explore the role of evidence in the policy process. Whereas much literature on policy and evidence treats evidence as an external input, independent of politics, this paper explores the ongoing mutual constitution of both. Drawing on theories of policy framing and the sociology of classification, the account follows the story of a policy for Zero Carbon Homes from the parameters and values used to specify the target. Particular attention is given to the role of Regulatory Impact Assessments (RIAs) and to the creation of a new policy venue, the Zero Carbon Hub. The analysis underlines the way in which the choices about how to model and measure the aims potentially transforms them, the importance of policy venues for transparency and the role of RIAs in the authorization of particular definitions. A more transparent, open approach to policy formulation is needed in which the framing of evidence is recognized as an integral part of the policy process

The co-development of technology and new buildings: incorporating building integrated photovoltaics

Current approaches for the reduction of carbon emissions in buildings are often predicated on the integration of renewable technologies into building projects. Building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) is one of these technologies and brings its own set of challenges and problems with a resulting mutual articulation of this technology and the building. A Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) approach explores how negotiations between informal groups of project actors with shared interests shape the ongoing specification of both BIPV and the building. Six main groups with different interests were found to be involved in the introduction of BIPV (Cost Watchers, Design Aesthetes, Green Guardians, Design Optimizers, Generation Maximizers and Users). Their involvement around three sets of issues (design changes from lack of familiarity with the technology, misunderstandings from unfamiliar interdependencies of trades and the effects of standard firm procedure) is followed. Findings underline how BIPV requires a level of integration that typically spans different work packages and how standard contractual structures inhibit the smooth incorporation of BIPV. Successful implementation is marked by ongoing (re-)design of both the building and the technology as informal fluid groups of project actors with shared interests address the succession of problems which arise in the process of implementation