Recording seismic reflections using rigidly interconnected geophones

This is the publisher's version, also available electronically from "http://library.seg.org".Ultrashallow seismic reflection surveys require dense spatial sampling during data acquisition, which increases their cost. In previous efforts to find ways to reduce these costs, we connected geophones rigidly to pieces of channel iron attached to a farm implement. This method allowed us to plant the geophones in the ground quickly and automatically. The rigidly interconnected geophones used in these earlier studies detected first‐arrival energy along with minor interfering seismic modes, but they did not detect seismic reflections. To examine further the feasibility of developing rigid geophone emplacement systems to detect seismic reflections, we experimented with four pieces of channel iron, each 2.7 m long and 10 cm wide. Each segment was equipped with 18 geophones rigidly attached to the channel iron at 15‐cm intervals, and the spikes attached to all 18 geophones were pushed into the ground simultaneously. The geophones detected both refracted and reflected energy; however, no significant signal distortion or interference attributable to the rigid coupling of the geophones to the channel iron was observed in the data. The interfering seismic modes mentioned from the previous experiments were not detected, nor was any P‐wave propagation noted within the channel iron. These results show promise for automating and reducing the cost of ultrashallow seismic reflection and refraction surveys

Toward the autojuggie: Planting 72 geophones in 2 seconds

This is the publisher's version, also available electronically from “http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com”.Shallow seismic reflection surveys require dense spatial wave-field sampling, contributing to their high cost. To assess the feasibility of planting geophones automatically, we planted 72 geophones in approximately 2 s in a test line, using an 11-m-wide farm tillage tool as a planting device. Geophones were attached rigidly, at 15 cm intervals, to five pieces of heavy-duty channel iron bolted to the tillage-tool frame. Conventional comparison-line data collected about 75 cm away, parallel to the test line, were visually comparable with the seismic source 12 m distant. When the sources were placed 1 m from the geophones, a surface-wave mode was excited by the channel iron and detected by geophones in both lines. This mode exhibited a different phase velocity than that of the desired seismic body-waves and could be attenuated by frequency-wavenumber filtering. These results suggest that automatic geophone placement is feasible and could decrease shallow seismic surveying costs

Source-dependent frequency content of ultrashallow seismic reflection data

This is the publisher's version, also available electronically from "bssa.geoscienceworld.org".Seismic surveying within the upper few meters of the Earth's shallow subsurface requires a high-frequency source. To ascertain the important features of such sources, experiments were conducted at test sites in central and eastern Kansas using various impulsive seismic sources (4.5-kg hammer, 30.06 rifle, and .22-caliber rifle) to examine the effects of minimizing source energy on the frequency content of reflection data. Results indicate that the higher energy near-surface seismic-reflection sources (e.g., sledgehammer, large-caliber projectiles) lack some of the high-frequency energy exhibited by smaller sources, precluding the detection of reflection signal from ultrashallow depths (<3 m) at the sites tested. At the test site in eastern Kansas, the .22-caliber rifle yielded more energy above 250 Hz than either the sledgehammer or 30.06 rifle. At the test site in central Kansas, where three reflective interfaces shallower than 3 m exist, the .22-caliber rifle with subsonic ammunition yielded the largest amount of energy at frequencies above 300 Hz and produced the best data

Varying the effective mass of geophones

This is the published version. Reuse is subject to the Society of Exploration Geophysicists terms of use and conditions.Traditionally, acquiring seismic data has rested on the assumption that geophone mass should be as small as possible. When Steeples and coworkers in 1999 planted 72 geophones automatically and simultaneously with a farm tillage implement, the effective mass of each of the geophones was significantly increased. We examined how the mass of a geophone affects changes in traveltime, amplitude, frequency, and overall data quality by placing various external masses on top of 100‐Hz vertical geophones. Circular barbell weights of 1.1‐, 11.3‐, and 22.7 kg; an 8.2‐kg bag of lead shot; and a 136‐kg stack of barbell weights were placed on top of geophones during data acquisition. In addition, a very large mass in the form of a truck was parked on top of two of the geophones. Four seismic sources supplying a broad range of energies were tested: a sledgehammer, a .22‐caliber rifle, a 30.06 rifle, and an 8‐gauge Betsy Seisgun. Spectral analysis revealed that the smaller weights had the greatest effects on the capacities of the geophones to replicate the earth’s motion. Consequently, using geophones with a large effective mass as part of an automatic geophone‐planting device would not necessarily be detrimental to the collection of high‐quality near‐surface seismic data

The evolution of shallow seismic exploration methods

Near-surface seismic methods have developed considerably and have been applied much more widely since the 1970s. Improvements in instrumentation, along with cheaper computer power, have greatly affected the capabilities of these methods in recent years. Based on these new capabilities we offer suggestions for future research in and applications for shallow-seismic exploration methods. We present our recommendations in the context of significant developments in shallow-seismic techniques from the 1920s to the mid-1990s, concentrating on seismic reflection and, to a lesser degree, refraction and surface-wave studies. The recent advent of hardware capable of collecting as well as processing high-resolution, near-surface seismic data opens up new opportunities for three-component recording and multimode analysis

Recording wind microstructure with a seismograph

This is the publisher's version, also available electronically from "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com".In an effort to characterize the effects of atmospheric waves on seismic sensors at the surface of the earth, we used geophones to perform some simple experiments allowing us to “watch” the wind. By examining the wind noise on the resulting seismograms, we were able to characterize the microstructure of atmospheric wind gusts at a horizontal scale of 1 to 10 m. In a first experiment to detect the wind-induced wave field, we placed 96 geophones on the ground in a straight line aligned parallel with the wind at intervals of 0.3 m. We recorded the resulting data using a 96-channel exploration seismograph. In essence, the seismograph system served as a linear array of 96 ground-level wind sensors. On a 1- to 2-m scale, wind-gust details became apparent after the seismograph had recorded for a period of 7.5 s. When wind-gust speeds were between 4 and 7 m/s (as measured directly from the time-and-distance relationships obtained from the seismogram), the wavelength of the gusts was between 3 and 6 m. In a second experiment, we used an array consisting of three parallel lines of 32 geophones each and were able to detect the lateral components of wind motion and turbulence relative to the long axis of the array. We noted variations in both space and time in the effect of the wind gusts on the geophones. The sensing system we describe is preliminary; however, when further refined, it may be a useful way of looking at the microstructure of atmospheric motion near the ground. The data we obtained also suggest that when models are constructed and near-ground atmospheric observations are made using grid spacings of more than 1 m, the results may be subject to serious spatial-aliasing effects. The authors offer these results in the hope that they will stimulate new, cross-disciplinary scientific inquiry. Moreover, applications of the technique might include the generation of data to support improved modeling of atmospheric turbulence at meter scales, which could be of interest to those requiring information about wind shear, wind-induced soil erosion, the dispersion of pollutants and toxins, and other subjects of interest

In-situ, high-frequency P-Wave velocity measurements within 1 m of the Earth’s surface

This is the publisher's version, also available electronically from "http://library.seg.org".Seismic P-wave velocities in near‐surface materials can be much slower than the speed of sound waves in air (normally 335 m/s or 1100 ft/s). Difficulties often arise when measuring these low‐velocity P-waves because of interference by the air wave and the air‐coupled waves near the seismic source, at least when gathering data with the more commonly used shallow P-wave sources. Additional problems in separating the direct and refracted arrivals within ∼2 m of the source arise from source‐generated nonlinear displacement, even when small energy sources such as sledgehammers, small‐caliber rifles, and seismic blasting caps are used. Using an automotive spark plug as an energy source allowed us to measure seismic P-wave velocities accurately, in situ, from a few decimeters to a few meters from the shotpoint. We were able to observe three distinct P-wave velocities at our test site: ∼130m/s, 180m/s, and 300m/s. Even the third layer, which would normally constitute the first detected layer in a shallow‐seismic‐refraction survey, had a P-wave velocity lower than the speed of sound in air

Geophones on a board

This is the publisher's version, also available electronically from "http://library.seg.org".We examined the feasibility of using seismic reflections to image the upper 10 m of the earth’s surface quickly and effectively by rigidly attaching geophones to a wooden board at 5-cm intervals. The shallow seismic reflection information obtained was equivalent to control‐test data gathered using classic, single‐geophone plants with identical 5-cm intervals. Tests were conducted using both a .22-caliber rifle source and a 30.06-rifle source. In both cases, the results were unexpected: in response to our use of small, high‐resolution seismic sources at offsets of a few meters, we found little intergeophone interference that could be attributed to the presence of the board. Furthermore, we noted very little difference in a 60-ms intra‐alluvial reflection obtained using standard geophone plants versus that obtained using board‐mounted geophones. For both sources, amplitude spectra were nearly identical for data gathered with and without the board. With the 30.06 source, filtering at high‐frequency passbands revealed a wave mode of unknown origin that appears to be related to the presence of the board; however, this mode did not interfere with the usefulness of the shallow‐reflection data. The results of these experiments suggest that deploying large numbers of closely spaced geophones simultaneously—perhaps even automatically—is possible. Should this method of planting geophones prove practical after further testing, the cost‐effectiveness of very shallow seismic reflection imaging may be enhanced. The technique also may be useful at greater reflector depths in situations employing bunched geophones. However, this approach may not be applicable in all circumstances because larger energy sources may induce interference between the geophones and produce undesirable modes of motion within the medium holding the geophones