Oxazolidinones as versatile scaffolds in medicinal chemistry

Oxazolidinone is a five-member heterocyclic ring with several biological applications in medicinal chemistry. Among the three possible isomers, 2-oxazolidinone is the most investigated in drug discovery. Linezolid was pioneered as the first approved drug containing an oxazolidinone ring as the pharmacophore group. Numerous analogues have been developed since its arrival on the market in 2000. Some have succeeded in reaching the advanced stages of clinical studies. However, most oxazolidinone derivatives reported in recent decades have not reached the initial stages of drug development, despite their promising pharmacological applications in a variety of therapeutic areas, including antibacterial, antituberculosis, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, neurologic, and metabolic diseases, among other areas. Therefore, this review article aims to compile the efforts of medicinal chemists who have explored this scaffold over the past decades and highlight the potential of the class for medicinal chemistry

Image-Based In Vitro Screening Reveals the Trypanostatic Activity of Hydroxymethylnitrofurazone against Trypanosoma cruzi.

Hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH) is a therapeutic candidate for Chagas disease (CD). It has negligible hepatotoxicity in a murine model compared to the front-line drug benznidazole (BZN). Here, using Trypanosoma cruzi strains that express bioluminescent and/or fluorescent reporter proteins, we further investigated the in vitro and in vivo activity of NFOH to define whether the compound is trypanocidal or trypanostatic. The in vitro activity was assessed by exploiting the fluorescent reporter strain using wash-out assays and real-time microscopy. For animal experimentation, BALB/c mice were inoculated with the bioluminescent reporter strain and assessed by highly sensitive in vivo and ex vivo imaging. Cyclophosphamide treatment was used to promote parasite relapse in the chronic stage of infection. Our data show that NFOH acts by a trypanostatic mechanism, and that it is more active than BZN in vitro against the infectious trypomastigote form of Trypanosoma cruzi. We also found that it is more effective at curing experimental infections in the chronic stage, compared with the acute stage, a feature that it shares with BZN. Therefore, given its reduced toxicity, enhanced anti-trypomastigote activity, and curative properties, NFOH can be considered as a potential therapeutic option for Chagas disease, perhaps in combination with other trypanocidal agents

Synthesis, Characterization, and Activity of Hydroxymethylnitrofurazone Nanocrystals against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp.

Hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH) is a prodrug of nitrofurazone devoid of mutagenic toxicity, with in vitro and in vivo activity against Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) and in vitro activity against Leishmania. In this study, we aimed to increase the solubility of NFOH to improve its efficacy against T. cruzi (Chagas disease) and Leishmania species (Leishmaniasis) highly. Two formulations of NFOH nanocrystals (NFOH-F1 and NFOH-F2) were prepared and characterized by determining their particle sizes, size distribution, morphologies, crystal properties, and anti-trypanosomatid activities. Furthermore, cytotoxicity assays were performed. The results showed that the optimized particle size of 108.2 ± 0.8 nm (NFOH-F1) and 132.4 ± 2.3 nm (NFOH-F2) increased the saturation solubility and dissolution rate of the nanocrystals. These formulations exhibited moderate anti-Leishmania effects (Leishmania amazonensis) in vitro and potent in vitro activity against T. cruzi parasites (Y strain). Moreover, both formulations could reduce parasitemia (around 89–95% during the parasitemic peak) in a short animal model trial (Y strain from T. cruzi). These results suggested that the increased water solubility of the NFOH nanocrystals improved their activity against Chagas disease in both in vitro and in vivo assays

Estudo de hidroximetilnitrofural (NFOH) na fase crônica da Doença de Chagas em modelo animal

A tripanosomíase americana ou doença de Chagas é uma zoonose endêmica em 21 países das Américas do Sul e Central, apontada como uma grave doença parasitária resultante da infecção pelo parasito hemoflagelado denominado Trypanosoma cruzi que utilizam insetos triatomíneos como vetores. Existem dois fármacos para o tratamento dessa enfermidade, o nifurtimox (NFX) e o benznidazol (BNZ), ativos apenas na fase aguda da doença, sendo que no Brasil apenas o BNZ é comercializado. Em busca de novas alternativas para o tratamento, destaca-se o hidroximetilnitrolfural (NFOH), ativo contra as formas tripomastigotas e amastigotas em ensaio in vitro e in vivo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar ensaios in vivo em camundongos Balb/c, na fase crônica da doença de Chagas. Neste sentido foi padronizado o ensaio em fase crônica, utilizando a cepa Y de T.cruzi, com inóculos de 102 formas tripomastigotas. Os animais foram tratados durante 60 dias com NFOH e BNZ seguido de imunossupressão induzida por dexametasona durante 14 dias. Ao final do protocolo os animais foram eutanasiados, pesados, realizado as análises bioquímicas (TGO, TGP, CK–MB, e GGT) e histopatológica. Os resultados demonstraram que nos animais tratados com NFOH e BZN não foi observada a reativação da parasitemia após a imunossupressão, enquanto no controle positivo houve reativação em 55,5% dos animais. Os ensaios bioquímicos não demonstraram alteração nos valores em todos os grupos. Os pesos relativos bem como a análise macroscópica do coração, vesícula biliar, baço e rins do grupo NFOH foram similares ao grupo controle negativo enquanto o grupo BZN foi semelhante ao grupo controle positivo. Na analise histopatológica, o grupo NFOH apresentou apenas a presença de um amastigota em um coração dentre oito animais (1/8) enquanto o grupo BZN foi observado presença de um à dois ninhos em quatro corações (4/8) e no fígado (1/8) comparados com o controle positivo, em que observou-se a presença e inúmeros ninhos amastigotas no coração (5/9) e também no fígado (2/9). Foi observada, também, a presença de ninhos de amastigotas em torno do plexo intestinal do grupo controle positivo (1/9), mas ausente no grupo NFOH, sugerindo que o NFOH é um potencial candidato a fármaco para utilização em fase crônica da doença de Chagas.A tripanosomíase americana ou doença de Chagas é uma zoonose endêmica em 21 países das Américas do Sul e Central, apontada como uma grave doença parasitária resultante da infecção pelo parasito hemoflagelado denominado Trypanosoma cruzi que utilizam insetos triatomíneos como vetores. Existem dois fármacos para o tratamento dessa enfermidade, o nifurtimox (NFX) e o benznidazol (BNZ), ativos apenas na fase aguda da doença, sendo que no Brasil apenas o BNZ é comercializado. Em busca de novas alternativas para o tratamento, destaca-se o hidroximetilnitrolfural (NFOH), ativo contra as formas tripomastigotas e amastigotas em ensaio in vitro e in vivo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar ensaios in vivo em camundongos Balb/c, na fase crônica da doença de Chagas. Neste sentido foi padronizado o ensaio em fase crônica, utilizando a cepa Y de T.cruzi, com inóculos de 102 formas tripomastigotas. Os animais foram tratados durante 60 dias com NFOH e BNZ seguido de imunossupressão induzida por dexametasona durante 14 dias. Ao final do protocolo os animais foram eutanasiados, pesados, realizado as análises bioquímicas (TGO, TGP, CK–MB, e GGT) e histopatológica. Os resultados demonstraram que nos animais tratados com NFOH e BZN não foi observada a reativação da parasitemia após a imunossupressão, enquanto no controle positivo houve reativação em 55,5% dos animais. Os ensaios bioquímicos não demonstraram alteração nos valores em todos os grupos. Os pesos relativos bem como a análise macroscópica do coração, vesícula biliar, baço e rins do grupo NFOH foram similares ao grupo controle negativo enquanto o grupo BZN foi semelhante ao grupo controle positivo. Na analise histopatológica, o grupo NFOH apresentou apenas a presença de um amastigota em um coração dentre oito animais (1/8) enquanto o grupo BZN foi observado presença de um à dois ninhos em quatro corações (4/8) e no fígado (1/8) comparados com o controle positivo, em que observou-se a presença e inúmeros ninhos amastigotas no coração (5/9) e também no fígado (2/9). Foi observada, também, a presença de ninhos de amastigotas em torno do plexo intestinal do grupo controle positivo (1/9), mas ausente no grupo NFOH, sugerindo que o NFOH é um potencial candidato a fármaco para utilização em fase crônica da doença de Chagas.Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES

Response to different benznidazole doses in animal models of chronic phase Chagas disease: a critical review

Abstract Chagas disease is a protozoan infection that was identified over a century ago. No drugs are available to treat the indeterminate and determinate chronic phases of the disease. Success of a drug design is dependent on correct biological evaluation. Concerning new drug designs for Chagas disease, it is essential to first identify the most effective, existing, experimental chronic protocols that can be used for comparison purposes. Here, we present a literature review regarding experimental models with chronic Chagas disease to evaluate the efficacy of benznidazole (BZN). We searched literature published in PubMed and Web of Science databases, using these keywords: animal model, BZN, Chagas disease, T. cruzi, and chronic phase, with no timeframe limitations. We excluded articles involving acute phase animal models and/or those without BZN treatment. The selected studies were conducted using different BZN concentrations (10mg-100mg) involving several different periods (5-70 days). Concentrations and durations of use are directly related to side effects, but do not prevent chronic tissue lesions. BZN use during the late/chronic phases of Chagas disease is unable to eliminate amastigote forms present in infected tissues. This study suggests the administration of a lower BZN concentration (<100mg/kg/day) during the chronic phase of the animal model, as this had been reported to result in fewer side effects

The Application of Prodrugs as a Tool to Enhance the Properties of Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) is an effective treatment for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which has transformed the highly lethal disease, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), into a chronic and manageable condition. However, better methods need to be developed for enhancing patient access and adherence to therapy and for improving treatment in the long term to reduce adverse effects. From the perspective of drug discovery, one promising strategy is the development of anti-HIV prodrugs. This approach aims to enhance the efficacy and safety of treatment, promoting the development of more appropriate and convenient systems for patients. In this review, we discussed the use of the prodrug approach for HIV antiviral agents and emphasized nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. We comprehensively described various strategies that are used to enhance factors such as water solubility, bioavailability, pharmacokinetic parameters, permeability across biological membranes, chemical stability, drug delivery to specific sites/organs, and tolerability. These strategies might help researchers conduct better studies in this field. We also reported successful examples from the primary therapeutic classes while discussing the advantages and limitations. In this review, we highlighted the key trends in the application of the prodrug approach for treating HIV/AIDS

Resveratrol and Curcumin for Chagas Disease Treatment&mdash;A Systematic Review

Chagas disease (CD) is a neglected protozoan infection caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, which affects about 7 million people worldwide. There are two available drugs in therapeutics, however, they lack effectiveness for the chronic stage&mdash;characterized mainly by cardiac (i.e., cardiomyopathy) and digestive manifestations (i.e., megaesophagus, megacolon). Due to the involvement of the immuno-inflammatory pathways in the disease&rsquo;s progress, compounds exhibiting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity seem to be effective for controlling some clinical manifestations, mainly in the chronic phase. Resveratrol (RVT) and curcumin (CUR) are natural compounds with potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and their cardioprotective effect have been proposed to have benefits to treat CD. Such effects could decrease or block the progression of the disease&rsquo;s severity. The purpose of this systematic review is to analyze the effectiveness of RVT and CUR in animal and clinical research for the treatment of CD. The study was performed according to PRISMA guidelines and it was registered on PROSPERO (CDR42021293495). The results did not find any clinical study, and the animal research was analyzed according to the SYRCLES risk of bias tools and ARRIVE 2.0 guidelines. We found 9 eligible reports in this study. We also discuss the potential RVT and CUR derivatives for the treatment of CD as well