The subsistence coral reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait: monitoring protocols and assessment

The Torres Strait Finfish Fishery (TSFF) in far northern Australia is a typical example of a multi-sectoral reef fish fishery where data are scarce, especially for the subsistence sector. No management arrangements are in place for the subsistence fishery. The lack of such arrangements is an effort to maintain its cultural value as required by the Torres Strait Treaty (1985). Nonetheless, to protect this traditional subsistence fishery, information on trends in catch and catch rates, the socioeconomic importance of the subsistence sector, possible impacts of the recreational and commercial fisheries on the subsistence fishery, and the status of exploited stocks is required. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of the dynamics of the subsistence reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait and ultimately provide a number of recommendations relevant to the more\ud effective monitoring and management of this traditional subsistence fishery. In this context this study made a significant contribution, providing the required information and insight into the interdependence of the human context and the ecological system. A holistic approach, which allowed the investigation of the socio-economic as well as the ecological characteristics of the fishery, was used. The specific objectives of this study were to:\ud \ud 1. Develop robust protocols to monitor the subsistence reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait.\ud 2. Determine the main factors influencing fishing effort and the socio-economic aspects of the subsistence reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait.\ud 3. Assess the interactions between the subsistence and the Indigenous commercial\ud sectors of the reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait.\ud 4. Compare catch and catch rates of the subsistence reef fish fishery between the Torres Strait Islands and over time.\ud \ud Monitoring protocols were developed to assess the subsistence reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait (Objective 1). Protocols developed in this study, and information collected, could be used when monitoring other similar Indigenous fisheries in Australia. Creel surveys, usually used to monitor recreational fisheries, were employed. Semi-structured interviews were also used to collect additional information on subsistence fishing and on perceptions of community members about fisheries issues. The long-term employment of a local research counterpart, a common strategy to monitor reef fish fisheries, was precluded in this study by several socio-economic and cultural conditions of the communities. This is a point to carefully consider when developing monitoring programs in the Torres Strait, since it can determine their extent and success.\ud \ud Socio-economic factors, such as involvement in, and income from, commercial fishing, other wage-employments and welfare programs were found to influence patterns of subsistence fishing effort (Objective 2). These socio-economic factors should be explicitly addressed in future fisheries assessments and management decisions for the TSFF. Different levels of modernisation of fishing activities on the islands studied had an impact on fishing effort. This trend was different to that usually observed in other coastal communities, with higher quantities of fish being taken as modernisation increased. 206 and 248 kg person-1 year-1 of fish were caught annually on Yorke and Darnley Islands, respectively, which were the islands with the higher level of modernisation of fishing activities. These extremely high catches were a consequence of the fact that today part of the catch is sent off-island rather than consumed locally. In contrast, catch of fish per capita on Murray Island (98 kg person-1 year-1) was similar to values previously estimated for the Torres Strait. Overall, this study highlighted the primary importance of subsistence fishing as a source of animal protein and of replacement income, with a very high level of community involvement in subsistence fishing. These communities still rely greatly\ud on subsistence fishing for their everyday livelihood.\ud \ud Indigenous commercial fishing for reef fish has socially and economically reshaped the characteristics of the traditional subsistence sector by increasing the use of motorised boats but decreasing the frequency that fishers were involved in traditional subsistence fishing, with consequent changes in catch rates (Objective 3). Indigenous commercial fishing generally did not take the same reef fish species as traditional subsistence fishing. However, catch taken for subsistence during commercial fishing (which is inconsistent with current legislation) may have a negative impact on harvested stocks, since it formed approximately 22% of the total commercial catch and, more importantly, consisted mainly of undersized target species. These characteristics of the reef fish fishery should be closely monitored to maintain viable harvested stocks.\ud \ud Overall, the traditional subsistence catch had a 4-fold increase in the last two decades, with the most recent annual value for the three islands (16931 t) similar to that of the commercial sectors (Objective 4). Underestimations of the historical totals are likely, however, as a consequence of biases in the previous monitoring program. Reasons behind the increased catches are concomitant with social, cultural and economic conditions triggered by an increase, at different rates, in modernisation (use of motorised boats and introduction of nets) on the islands.\ud \ud Although increases in traditional fishing effort and catch were observed over time, the lack of any decline in yields and catch rates suggested that fish resources have not been overexploited. Yields increased in the observed period from a very low 0.4 t km-2 year-1 in 1991/1992 to the current 2.5 t km-2 year-1. This current yield is comparable with other fish yields between 2.3 and 3.7 t km-2 y-1 recently reported as reference points of sustainability for fisheries in the South Pacific. Catch rates for single gears may indicate signs of localized overexploitation. Catch rates of gillnet and castnet from shore have been decreasing over time, and current values are low compared to catch rates from similar reef fish fisheries in the South Pacific. Some families of fish, such as Mugilidae and Siganidae, which are commonly targeted by those gears from shore, showed a similar decrease in catch over time. Families of commercial importance (i.e. Serranidae, Lutjanidae and Lethrinidae), which are now taken for subsistence during commercial fishing, also decreased in catch over time in the traditional subsistence fishery. This is further evidence of interactions between the traditional subsistence and commercial sectors of the reef fish fishery. In contrast, Carangidae increased in importance as a target group of fish in subsistence fishing (traditional and commercial-associated) and will need to be\ud monitored more closely in future.\ud \ud Overall, although the economic and cultural value of the subsistence reef fish fishery has to be regarded as a key priority, management measures nonetheless should be\ud implemented to ensure the sustainability of subsistence fisheries. The Treaty imposes on involved parties obligations to protect flora and fauna in the Protected Zone (article 14). Protection and preservation of marine resources are fundamental to protecting their traditional and cultural use. This study indicates that the catch levels in the subsistence reef fish fishery in the Torres Strait may be sustainable.\ud \ud Three main findings of this study pose a challenge for the management of the fin fish fishery in the Torres Strait. Firstly, increased modernisation of fishing techniques on the islands is positively correlated with increased fishing effort. If modernisation of fishing on the islands increases in the future it will place greater pressure on reef fish resources. Secondly, part of the subsistence catch is nowadays shipped off the islands. If shipping facilities become more organised and cheaper and fishery catches rise for the reasons outlined above, then more fish will be sent to the mainland, where the Torres Strait Islander population was 47,325 in 2006. Thirdly, taking fish for subsistence during commercial fishing is a normal practice. If this activity persists, it will be important to continue to monitor this component of the fishery and consider it in management decisions, particularly because of the practice of harvesting undersized individuals in species of commercial importance. A recommended approach to enforce existing regulations and increase participation of communities in the monitoring and management of marine resources, is to implement community-based sea management programs coordinated by the Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA)’s Land and Management Unit, which is a local management agency. Funds would allow the employment of additional rangers who could take responsibility for several aspects of the education of fishing communities, and the monitoring and management of marine resources.\u

Drivers of illegal livelihoods in remote transboundary regions: the case of the Trans-Fly region of Papua New Guinea

Remote transboundary regions in developing countries often contain abundant natural resources. Many of these resources are being overexploited to supply an ever-increasing demand from Asia, often via illegal cross-border trade. Understanding the systemic issues that drive households to engage in illegal activities in transboundary regions is a prerequisite for designing effective interventions and diverting livelihoods toward sustainable trajectories, but is rarely applied. This study analyzed the drivers of illegal trade in marine products, e.g. sea cucumber, shark fin, and fish bladders, among coastal villages in Papua New Guinea that border Indonesia and Australia in the Trans-Fly region. Mixed-methods (household questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews) were applied to triangulate results and minimize denial bias, which is a challenge when studying illegality. Results indicated that distance from markets and economic centers was the main driver for engagement in illegal activity, and distance from a center was also the main driver of poverty. Contrary to studies elsewhere, we found that poverty did not generally drive households' engagement in illegal trade. Only in Daru, the primary economic hub, where immigrants from the areas impacted by the Ok Tedi mine operations have resettled, were the poorest households likely to be involved in illegal trade, because they had no alternative sources of livelihood. Weak governance exacerbates the situation, which includes corruption, a lack of enforcement, and poor coordination among government levels, and a breakdown of traditional resource management systems. Respondents highlighted that current bilateral border agreements are outdated and cannot account for modernization, a globalizing economy, and communities' rapid transition to a cash economy. Our findings emphasize the need to find innovative governance solutions to manage this stressed social-ecological system, without which severe social, economic, and environmental repercussions could soon eventuate

Asymmetrical Development across Transboundary Regions: The Case of the Torres Strait Treaty Region (Australia and Papua New Guinea)

While there is much theoretical study of the evolution of border disparities, there is little empirical analysis of development asymmetries across border regions, and their causes or solutions. Often disparities among countries hinder the ability of transboundary agreements and other development initiatives to generate sustainable development. This study quantifies development progress amongst communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea (PNG) covered by the Torres Strait Treaty, 26 years after its inception. Using regional census data from 2011 we found contrasting patterns of human development, with markedly poorer education levels in PNG. This asymmetry was confirmed by a Human Development Index of 0.735 for the Torres Strait and 0.270 for the neighbouring province in PNG. From a survey of 1089 PNG households in 2012⁻2013 we calculated that 63% of people in the villages were multidimensional poor, and 28% were ‘vulnerable to poverty’. Poverty was positively correlated with poor health, which has implications for the control of tuberculosis in the region. While Treaty provisions may have reduced poverty amongst some PNG villages closest to Australian communities, development initiatives by Ok Tedi mine in compensation for its environmental impacts have not. Our study highlights the causes of the sustainable development gap between PNG and Australian communities, and the necessity for transboundary agreements and institutions to have the capacity to adapt to their unintended consequences and rapid global change

The role of subsistence fishing in the hybrid economy of an indigenous community

There is a paucity of information on subsistence reef fisheries of indigenous communities in Torres Strait, Australia, and its role within their hybrid economy. Bus route surveys and semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2005 and 2006 on three islands in Torres Strait to understand whether subsistence fishing remains important for the livelihoods of Torres Strait communities and whether patterns of fishing effort are driven by changes in their socio-economic structure. Strong interactions among private (commercial fishing and other wage-employment), public (social security payments from the State) and subsistence sectors were observed. When social security payments were spent, Islanders were more reliant on subsistence fishing. Also, higher levels of involvement in the private sector corresponded with a shift from shore to boat-based subsistence activities. Socio-economic factors, such as involvement in commercial fishing and social security payments, were identified as the main driving factors of subsistence fishing activities. Findings of the present study stress the importance of considering socio-economic factors explicitly in future fisheries assessments and management decisions concerning the sustainability of resources in Torres Strait

Quantifying changes in the subsistence reef fishery of indigenous communities in Torres Strait, Australia

Catch levels and fishing practices for the traditional subsistence reef fishery in Torres Strait, Australia, have likely changed since the 1980s. Islanders now have greater access to motorised boats and modern fishing gears. This allows them to travel further, access more fishing grounds and improve catch rates. The aim of this study was to quantify changes in the fishery over a period of 15 years (1991/1992-2005/2006). Catch information collected in 2005/2006 allowed a comparison of subsistence fish catch and yields with estimates of these variables made from data collected in the 1990s. In 2005/2006, mean annual subsistence catch from Darnley, Yorke and Murray Islands were 71 mt (SE = 21), 55 mt (SE = 18) and 43 mt (SE = 15), respectively. This represents annual reef fish yields of 1.97, 2.96 and 3.49 mt km⁻² y⁻¹, respectively, or per capita yields of 248, 206 and 92 kg person⁻¹ y⁻¹, respectively. These levels of subsistence catch were up to 6 times higher than those estimated from data collected at the same islands in 1991/1992 and 1995/1996. Estimated yields were comparable with those considered sustainable for other reef fisheries in the Pacific region. In contrast to other studied subsistence fisheries, higher levels of modernisation of fishing activities corresponded to higher fish yields. These increases are likely a consequence of the shift in the nature of the traditional subsistence activities to include the relatively recent practice of sending fish from the islands to family members in other locations. If catch levels continue to increase in the future, it will be important to estimate more reliably sustainable yields for the fishery, which would allow more informed management decisions

Transitioning toward “deep” knowledge co-production in coastal and marine systems: examining the interplay among governance, power, and knowledge

Knowledge co-production (KCP) is presented as an effective strategy to inform responses to complex coastal and marine social-ecological challenges. Co-production processes are further posited to improve research and decision outcomes in a wide range of problem contexts (e.g., biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation), for example, by facilitating social learning among diverse actors. As such, KCP processes are increasingly centered in global environment initiatives such as the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. However, KCP is not a panacea, and much uncertainty remains about its emergence and implementation, in particular, the manner in which broader governance contexts determine the interplay of knowledge, power, and decision-making. Three objectives guide our analysis: (1) to interrogate more fully the interplay among social relations of power, knowledge production practices, and the (colonial) governance contexts in which they are embedded; (2) to consider the challenges and limitations of KCP in particular places by drawing attention to key governance themes and their implications for achieving better outcomes; and (3) to work toward a fuller understanding of “deep KCP” that cautions against a tendency to view knowledge processes in coastal and marine governance settings as an instrumental or techno-managerial problem. A qualitative and reflective approach was used to examine multiple dimensions of the interplay of KCP, governance, and power in several marine and coastal contexts, including Canada, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea. In particular, our analysis highlights the importance of: (1) recognizing diverse motivations that frame co-production processes; (2) the manner in which identities, positionality, and values influence and are influenced by governance contexts; (3) highlighting governance capacity with respect to spatial and temporal constraints; (4) institutional reforms necessary for KCP and the links to governance; and (5) the relationship between knowledge sharing, data sovereignty, and governance. We seek to encourage those involved in or considering co-production initiatives to engage carefully and critically in these processes and make co-production more than a box to tick