Studies in the J-transformation of scattered X-radiation

In the investigations on Scattered X-radiations described in the following pages, the J₁, J₂ and J₃ series of absorption-edges and lines in various substances have been demonstrated. What is now called the J₃-series was discovered by Barkla and White in 1916, using a primary X-radiation. A similar absorption discontinuity was also discovered by Barkla by using the characteristic radiations of the K-series. There was however, a discrepancy between the values of the critical mass-absorption-coefficients obtained for the characteristic radiations and those obtained from experiments on heterogeneous primary rays. It originally appeared probable that this discrepancy was due to the difference in the constitution of the two beams - one a heterogeneous bundle of radiation giving presumably a continuous spectrum within narrow limits and the other, a characteristic radiation giving practically a line spectrum. The results embodied in this paper, however, show that these two form quite distinct series, J₂ and J₃. In fact there is evidence that lines of the three distinct series J₁, J₂ and J₃ can "be obtained in one series of observations with scattered X-radiations. These involve what we have called the J-transformation of an X-radiation.The characteristics of this transformation which have been investigated using a scattered X-radiation are briefly the following: (1) There are definite critical values for mass-absorption coefficients at which these J-absorption edges and lines appear. The critical value is different for different absorbing substances. It is characteristic of the absorbing material, (2) The magnitude of the J-absorption is also different for different substances. (3) The phenomenon is conditional on factor or factors other than wavelength and the material of the absorbing substance. (4) On the assumption that a change of wavelength is always associated with a change of absorption in all substances, the J-phenomenon does not involve any change of wavelength during transmission. (5) The phenomenon is definitely associated with an average absorption-coefficient of a radiation and not with a certain wavelength so that there can be a change of X-ray activity without a corresponding change in wavelength.The application of these generalisations to the scattered X-radiation has led to.some very important conclusions as regards scattered X-radiations which have recently received a great deal of attention on account of the startling theory of wavelength-change oft scattering proposed by A. H. Compton and Debye. The main conclusions are:- I. The difference that is generally observed between the penetrating powers of the primary and secondary (scattered) radiations is due to the fact that the scattered radiation exhibits the J-phenomenon while the primary does not, in passing through the absorbing substance used to test the absorbability of these radiations. The difference appears abruptly at the critical penetrating powers for the J-discontinuities. Apart from these differences definitely associated with the testing material the scattered and the primary radiations are exactly alike. II. Between two discontinuities the difference between the mass-absorption-coefficients for the primary and secondary radiations is constant. It only depends on the material of the absorbing substance. According to Compton and Debye theory on the contrary, the change in wavelength should be constant. III. Since the J~transformation is conditional on factor or factors other than the nature of the substance traversed and wavelength of radiation, we get either an equality of the penetrating powers of the primary and secondary radiations or a marked difference between the two. The "modified" and the "unmodified" scattering are not therefore, simultaneous but only alternative. IV. The difference between the penetrating powers of the secondary and primary radiations is independent of the angle of scattering. This again is contradictory to the theory of change in wavelength proposed by Compton and Debye.Thus the results of our investigations seem totally incompatible with the Compton-Debye theory. The only possibilities of reconciling the two are discussed in detail in the following pages.Before presenting the actual results of the investigations on the absorption of Scattered X-rays, we propose to give below, by way of an introduction, a general, survey of what has been done along this line by previous experimenters and indicate the way in which we have been able to come to definite conclusions regarding scattered X-radiations

Measurement and determinants of efficiency in crop production in Nepal

Our study is an attempt to quantify efficiency of farmers and estimate the gap from its potential given the technology currently prevailing in Nepal. To estimate inefficiency in agriculture, we use a stochastic frontier production function. We also use OLS to compare the results for the Cobb-Douglas and translogarithmic functions to determine which of the two provides a better representation of the data. It is also interesting to examine what these functions yield for the levels of technical inefficiencies, returns to scale, and the elasticities of output with respect to different inputs

The Impact of Foreign Remittances on Poverty in Nepal: A Panel Study of Household Survey Data, 1996-2011

Using data from the longitudinal panel surveys of 1996, 2004, and 2011, this paper examines the dynamics of foreign remittances and their impact on poverty in Nepal. The intent is to explore how foreign remittances have evolved and impacted poverty and economic well-being of households. Focusing on a consistent set of households across the three survey rounds in a balanced panel format helps examine the effect of foreign remittances with appropriate controls. Results from methodologically consistent, random-effects regressions that correct for potential attrition and heterogeneity bias support significant poverty-reducing and, more accurately, economic well-being-enhancing effects of foreign remittances especially when originating in countries other than India. This and other findings are valuable to the assessment of policies on utilizing foreign labor migration and remittances as a vehicle to reduce poverty in Nepal

Agricultural Productivity and Poverty Reduction in Nepal

This paper provides for the first time a clear quantitative link between agricultural productivity and poverty among rural households in Nepal. Using data from a nationwide Nepal Living Standard Survey 2004, we first estimate household-specific productivity per worker under both Cobb–Douglas and translog production functions. Second, the paper identifies the determinants of productivity. Third, we explore a theoretical link between productivity and poverty using Sen\u27s poverty index and find empirically that productivity growth substantially helps poverty reduction. Finally, the integrated effects of changes in productivity determinants are found to be stronger than the outcomes of sectoral policies taken in isolation

Impact of remittance on poverty and inequality in Nepal: Evidence from three rounds of the NLSS survey

This research paper addresses the question: How much of a role has the increase in migration and remittance played in the reduction of poverty and in the rise and subsequent fall in income inequality in Nepal

Firm Size, Foreign Exposure and Inequality in Wage: A Decomposition Analysis

This study uses pooled cross-section data from two large surveys of firms in Nepal to determine wage inequality. Applying an inequality decomposition procedure, the estimated wage inequality is then attributed to various factors that affect the labor demand function in the country. We find that firm size and exposure of firms to international trade are among the factors showing statistical significance in affecting wage disparity in Nepal. To the extent wage inequality can be attributed to the factors considered in this study, firm size alone accounts for 55 to 84 percent of the inequality depending on the size indicators such as employment or sales. On the other hand, foreign exposure, unlike strongly suggested in the literature, has played much less of a role

Firm Size, Foreign Exposure and Inequality in Wage: A Decomposition Analysis

This study uses pooled cross-section data from two large surveys of firms in Nepal to determine wage inequality. Applying an inequality decomposition procedure, the estimated wage inequality is then attributed to various factors that affect the labor demand function in the country. We find that firm size and exposure of firms to international trade are among the factors showing statistical significance in affecting wage disparity in Nepal. To the extent wage inequality can be attributed to the factors considered in this study, firm size alone accounts for 55 to 84 percent of the inequality depending on the size indicators such as employment or sales. On the other hand, foreign exposure, unlike strongly suggested in the literature, has played much less of a role