Energy supplier obligations and white certificate schemes:Comparative analysis of experiences in the European Union

A number of Member States of the European Union (EU) have introduced market-based policy portfolios based on quantified energy savings obligations on energy distributors or suppliers, possibly coupled with certification of project-based energy savings (via white certificates), and the option to trade the certificates or obligations. The paper provides an up-to-date review and analysis of results to date of white certificate schemes in the EU. In the EU supplier obligations and white certificate schemes have delivered larger savings than originally expected with obliged companies exceeding targets and, in some cases, at cost below what policy makers have anticipated. Supplier obligations foster the uptake of standardised energy efficiency actions often targeting smaller energy users (residential sector), lowering the transaction costs and contributing to market transformation. The role of certificate trading is more ambiguous. Trading can bring benefits where the target is set sufficiently high with respect to the energy-saving potential in the sectors covered. Theoretically trading may be better suited for broader systems with comprehensive coverage, but even in smaller schemes trading may reduce the transaction costs of compliance for obliged actors without sufficient expertise on end-use energy efficiency. Yet, trading increases the administrative cost ratio of energy-saving obligations

In situ fabrication of electrically conducting bacterial cellulose-polyaniline-titanium-dioxide composites with the immobilization of Shewanella xiamenensis and its application as bioanode in microbial fuel cell

The electrical conducting bacterial cellulose/polyaniline (BC/PANI) based composites were synthesized over in situ polymerization of aniline onto BC with ammonium-persulphate (APS) and chloride hexahydrate of iron (III) as oxidant (FeCl3·6H2O). The conductivity of synthesized BC was improved in the presence of a titanium-dioxide (TiO2) coating. The conductivity of BC/PANI/TiO2/APS was 3.7 S/m compare 2.9 S/m and 2.67 S/m with BC/PANI/TiO2/FeCl3·6H2O and BC/PANI/APS, respectively. Moreover, when using the BC/PANI/TiO2/APS as anode with the immobilization of Shewanella xiamenensis, an improved efficiency of microbial fuel cell was observed. The power-density maximized 38.89 W/m3 with BC/PANI/TiO2/APS anode compared with 2.57 W/m3 in the case of bare BC anode. These results will serve as a good base for the development of compact microbial fuel cell with high power density