Currently available tools and strategies for emergency vaccination in case of avian influenza

Recent epidemics of highly contagious animal diseases included in the list A of the OIE such as foot-and-mouth disease, classical swine fever and avian influenza (AI) have led to the implementation of stamping-out policies resulting in the depopulation of millions of animals. The enforcement of a control strategy based on culling of animals that are infected, suspected of being infected or suspected of being contaminated, which is based only on the application of sanitary restrictions on farms, may not be sufficient to avoid the spread of infection, particularly in areas that have high animal densities, thus resulting in mass depopulation. In the European Union, the directive that imposes the enforcement of a stampingout policy (92/40/EC) for AI was adopted in 1992 but was drafted in the 1980s. The poultry industry has undergone substantial changes in the last twenty years, mainly resulting in shorter production cycles and greater animal densities per territorial unit. Due to these organizational changes, infectious diseases are significantly more difficult to control as a result of the greater number of susceptible animals reared per given unit of time and the difficulties in applying adequate biosecurity measures. The slaughter and destruction of great numbers of animals is also questionable from an ethical point of view, particularly when human-health implications are negligible. For this reason, mass depopulation has raised serious concerns for the general public and has recently led to very high costs and economic losses for the national and federal governments, the stakeholders and ultimately for the consumers. In the past, the use of vaccines in such emergencies has been limited by the impossibility of differentiating vaccinated/infected from vaccinated/non-infected animals. The major concern was that through trade or movement of apparently uninfected animals or products, the disease could spread further or might be exported to other countries. For this reason export bans have been imposed on countries enforcing a vaccination policy. This paper takes into account the possible strategies for the control of avian influenza infections, bearing in mind the new proposed definition of AI. In detail, an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of using conventional inactivated (homologous and heterologous) vaccines and recombinant vaccines is presented and discussed. Reference is made to the different control strategies including the restriction measures to be applied in case of the enforcement of a vaccination policy. In addition, the implications of a vaccination policy on trade are discussed. In conclusion, if vaccination is accepted as an option for the control of AI, vaccine banks including companion diagnostic tests must be established and made available for immediate use

Determinants of the population growth of the West Nile virus mosquito vector Culex pipiens in a repeatedly affected area in Italy

Background The recent spread of West Nile Virus in temperate countries has raised concern. Predicting the likelihood of transmission is crucial to ascertain the threat to Public and Veterinary Health. However, accurate models of West Nile Virus (WNV) expansion in Europe may be hampered by limited understanding of the population dynamics of their primary mosquito vectors and their response to environmental changes.<p></p> Methods We used data collected in north-eastern Italy (2009–2011) to analyze the determinants of the population growth rate of the primary WNV vector Culex pipiens. A series of alternative growth models were fitted to longitudinal data on mosquito abundance to evaluate the strength of evidence for regulation by intrinsic density-dependent and/or extrinsic environmental factors. Model-averaging algorithms were then used to estimate the relative importance of intrinsic and extrinsic variables in describing the variations of per-capita growth rates.<p></p> Results Results indicate a much greater contribution of density-dependence in regulating vector population growth rates than of any environmental factor on its own. Analysis of an average model of Cx. pipiens growth revealed that the most significant predictors of their population dynamics was the length of daylight, estimated population size and temperature conditions in the 15 day period prior to sampling. Other extrinsic variables (including measures of precipitation, number of rainy days, and humidity) had only a minor influence on Cx. pipiens growth rates.<p></p> Conclusions These results indicate the need to incorporate density dependence in combination with key environmental factors for robust prediction of Cx. pipiens population expansion and WNV transmission risk. We hypothesize that detailed analysis of the determinants of mosquito vector growth rate as conducted here can help identify when and where an increase in vector population size and associated WNV transmission risk should be expected.<p></p&gt

What makes hot beverage vending machine cups eco-friendly? A research into consumer views and preferences

Purpose: This study aims to gain a first explorative view on what intrinsic/extrinsic attributes a generic cup for hot beverage should possess to be perceived as eco-friendly, and how some attributes of a hot beverage could influence consumers’ purchase decision and willingness to pay (WTP) for that beverage dispensed by vending machines (VMs). Design/methodology/approach: A questionnaire was developed in 2021 and sent to all students of an Italian university campus. For the first goal, students were asked to assign a score to some eco-friendly intrinsic/extrinsic attributes using a five-point Likert scale. For the second aim, a choice experiment with six scenarios was developed. Findings: Both intrinsic and extrinsic attributes play a key role in shaping students’ opinions and preferences. Results indicate that students are attracted by the idea of a cup that communicates its environmental properties through corresponding labels and information, and it is made by materials that guarantee biodegradability, recyclability or reusability. Originality/value: The research represents the first academic attempt to provide a first consumers’ viewpoint on the importance of eco-friendly attributes of cups for hot beverages able to influence consumers’ perceptions and consumption choices of hot beverages dispensed by VMs

Comparative genome-centric analysis reveals seasonal variation in the function of coral reef microbiomes

Microbially mediated processes contribute to coral reef resilience yet, despite extensive characterisation of microbial community variation following environmental perturbation, the effect on microbiome function is poorly understood. We undertook metagenomic sequencing of sponge, macroalgae and seawater microbiomes from a macroalgae-dominated inshore coral reef to define their functional potential and evaluate seasonal shifts in microbially mediated processes. In total, 125 high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes were reconstructed, spanning 15 bacterial and 3 archaeal phyla. Multivariate analysis of the genomes relative abundance revealed changes in the functional potential of reef microbiomes in relation to seasonal environmental fluctuations (e.g. macroalgae biomass, temperature). For example, a shift from Alphaproteobacteria to Bacteroidota-dominated seawater microbiomes occurred during summer, resulting in an increased genomic potential to degrade macroalgal-derived polysaccharides. An 85% reduction of Chloroflexota was observed in the sponge microbiome during summer, with potential consequences for nutrition, waste product removal, and detoxification in the sponge holobiont. A shift in the Firmicutes:Bacteroidota ratio was detected on macroalgae over summer with potential implications for polysaccharide degradation in macroalgal microbiomes. These results highlight that seasonal shifts in the dominant microbial taxa alter the functional repertoire of host-associated and seawater microbiomes, and highlight how environmental perturbation can affect microbially mediated processes in coral reef ecosystems.Australian Government Department of Industry, Innovation and Science; Advance Queensland PhD Scholarship Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Management Award National Environmental Science Program (NESP)info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

the effects of control measures on the economic burden associated with epidemics of avian influenza in italy

In 1999, Italy experienced a devastating epidemic of high-pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) caused by an H7N1 virus subtype. After this epidemic, a ministerial decree was passed to implement control measures for low-pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) due to H5 and H7 subtypes. We investigated whether these control measures have decreased the public expenditure associated with epidemics of LPAI and HPAI by comparing the direct and consequential losses of the 1999 epidemic to the losses associated with successive epidemics. The estimated total economic burden of the epidemics was about euro650 million (euro217 million in direct losses and euro433 million in consequential losses). The 1999 epidemic accounted for most of these losses (euro507 million: euro112 million in direct losses and euro395 million in consequential losses), whereas the total economic burden for the 5 successive LPAI was euro143 million (euro105 million in direct losses and euro38 million in consequential losses). These results demonstrate that the implementation of a coordinated set of disease-control measures, which included both emergency and prophylactic vaccination, was able to reduce the overall costs associated with avian influenza epidemics. The results also show that the application of adequate LPAI control measures may limit the risk of emergence of an HPAI virus in an area with a high poultry density, allowing the complete disruption of the poultry market and its huge associated costs to be avoided

Unexpected interfarm transmission dynamics during a highly pathogenic avian influenza epidemic

Next-generation sequencing technology is now being increasingly applied to study the within- and between-host population dynamics of viruses. However, information on avian influenza virus evolution and transmission during a naturally occurring epidemic is still limited. Here, we use deep-sequencing data obtained from clinical samples collected from five industrial holdings and a backyard farm infected during the 2013 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H7N7 epidemic in Italy to unravel (i) the epidemic virus population diversity, (ii) the evolution of virus pathogenicity, and (iii) the pathways of viral transmission between different holdings and sheds. We show a high level of genetic diversity of the HPAI H7N7 viruses within a single farm as a consequence of separate bottlenecks and founder effects. In particular, we identified the cocirculation in the index case of two viral strains showing a different insertion at the hemagglutinin cleavage site, as well as nine nucleotide differences at the consensus level and 92 minority variants. To assess interfarm transmission, we combined epidemiological and genetic data and identified the index case as the major source of the virus, suggesting the spread of different viral haplotypes from the index farm to the other industrial holdings, probably at different time points. Our results revealed interfarm transmission dynamics that the epidemiological data alone could not unravel and demonstrated that delay in the disease detection and stamping out was the major cause of the emergence and the spread of the HPAI strain

The promotion of stress tolerant Symbiodiniaceae dominance in juveniles of two coral species under simulated future conditions of ocean warming and acidification

The symbiotic relationship between coral and its endosymbiotic algae, Symbiodiniaceae, greatly influences the hosts’ potential to withstand environmental stress. To date, the effects of climate change on this relationship has primarily focused on adult corals. Uncovering the effects of environmental stress on the establishment and development of this symbiosis in early life stages is critical for predicting how corals may respond to climate change. To determine the impacts of future climate projections on the establishment of symbionts in juvenile corals, ITS2 amplicon sequencing of single coral juveniles was applied to Goniastrea retiformis and Acropora millepora before and after exposure to three climate conditions of varying temperature and pCO2 levels (current and RCP8.5 in 2050 and 2100). Compared to ambient conditions, juvenile corals experienced shuffling in the relative abundance of Cladocopium (C1m, decrease) to Durusdinium (D1 and D1a, increase) over time. We calculated a novel risk metric incorporating functional redundancy and likelihood of impact on host physiology to identify the loss of D1a as a “low risk” to the coral compared to the loss of “higher risk” taxa like D1 and C1m. Although the increase in stress tolerant Durusdinium under future warming was encouraging for A. millepora, by 2100, G. retiformis communities displayed signs of symbiosis de-regulation, suggesting this acclimatory mechanism may have species-specific thresholds. Whilst this study cannot specifically disentangle the individual effects of temperature and pCO2, it does provide valuable insights into the impacts of both stressors combined. These results emphasize the need for understanding of long-term effects of climate change induced stress on coral juveniles, and their potential for increased acclimation to heat tolerance through changes in symbiosis