Nitric Oxide-Sensitive Guanylyl Cyclase Is Differentially Regulated by Nuclear and Non-Nuclear Estrogen Pathways in Anterior Pituitary Gland

17β-estradiol (E2) regulates hormonal release as well as proliferation and cell death in the pituitary. The main nitric oxide receptor, nitric oxide sensitive- or soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), is a heterodimer composed of two subunits, α and β, that catalyses cGMP formation. α1β1 is the most abundant and widely expressed heterodimer, showing the greater activity. Previously we have shown that E2 decreased sGC activity but exerts opposite effects on sGC subunits increasing α1 and decreasing β1 mRNA and protein levels. In the present work we investigate the mechanisms by which E2 differentially regulates sGC subunits' expression on rat anterior pituitary gland. Experiments were performed on primary cultures of anterior pituitary cells from adult female Wistar rats at random stages of estrous cycle. After 6 h of E2 treatment, α1 mRNA and protein expression is increased while β1 levels are down-regulated. E2 effects on sGC expression are partially dependent on de novo transcription while de novo translation is fully required. E2 treatment decreased HuR mRNA stabilization factor and increased AUF1 p37 mRNA destabilization factor. E2-elicited β1 mRNA decrease correlates with a mRNA destabilization environment in the anterior pituitary gland. On the other hand, after 6 h of treatment, E2-BSA (1 nM) and E2-dendrimer conjugate (EDC, 1 nM) were unable to modify α1 or β1 mRNA levels, showing that nuclear receptor is involved in E2 actions. However, at earlier times (3 h), 1 nM EDC causes a transient decrease of α1 in a PI3k-dependent fashion. Our results show for the first time that E2 is able to exert opposite actions in the anterior pituitary gland, depending on the activation of classical or non-classical pathways. Thus, E2 can also modify sGC expression through membrane-initiated signals bringing to light a new point of regulation in NO/sGC pathway

Contraluminal sulfate transport in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. IV. Specificity: salicylate analogs

In order to study the specificity of the contraluminal sulfate transport system the inhibitory potency of salicylate analogs (5 mmol/l each) on the 35SO2−4 influx from the interstitium into cortical tubular cells in situ has been determined. The following was found: 2-hydroxybenzoate (salicylate), per se, did not inhibit contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx. The same holds when an additional NH2-group was introduced in position 4 or 5, or when an additional Cl-group was introduced in position 4. When an additional Cl- or NO2-group was introduced in position 5 a moderate inhibition was seen (app. Ki≈4 mmol/l). However, introduction of 2 Cl- or 2 NO2-groups in position 3 and 5 creates compounds with strong inhibitory potency (app. Ki≈0.5 mmol/l). 2-hydroxy-3,5-iodobenzoate inhibited too, but with a smaller inhibitory potency (app. Ki≈2.3 mmol/l). 2-hydroxybenzoate analogs, which have a carboxy- or sulfo-group in position 5, exerted strong inhibition, those with a acetyl- or butyryl-group exerted moderate inhibition. 1-Naphthol-2-carboxylate did not inhibit, while 1-naphthol-4-sulfamoyl-2-carboxylate did. Amongst the dihydroxybenzoates, 2,3- and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoate did not inhibit contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx, while 2,4- and 2,6-dihydroxybenzoate did. The data indicate that a hydroxy-group in ortho-position and an electro-negative group in the meta-position to the carboxyl group and paraposition to the hydroxy-group are essential for interaction with the contraluminal sulfate transport system. The ability of 2,6-dihydroxybenzoate to inhibit might be explained by its ability to undergo mesomeric conformation

Active Ca²⁺ reabsorption in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. Dependence on sodium- and buffer transport

Using the stop flow microperfusion technique with simultaneous capillary perfusion the rate active Ca2+ reabsorption was evaluated by measuring the static head electrochemical potential difference as well as the permeability of the tubular wall for Ca2+ ions. Under control conditions the active Ca2+ transport was calculated to be 3.35 X 10-13 mol/cm-s. It declined toward zero if the ambient Na+ was replaced by choline or lithium. Parallel experiments in the golden hamster showed that active Ca2+ transport, vanished completely if active Na+ transport was blocked by ouabain (1 mM). These data indicate that the active Ca2+ reabsorption from the proximal tubule depends on the active reabsorption of Na2+ presumably via a Na+-Ca2+ countertransport at the contraluminal cell membrane. The static head electrochemical potential difference of Ca2+ is the same in late and early proximal tubules. It is also not affected by the presence of acetazolamide (10-4 M) by the absence of bicarbonate or glycodiazine buffer or by the absence or presence of phosphate (2 mM)

Contraluminal sulfate transport in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. III. Specificity: disulfonates, di- and tri-carboxylates and sulfocarboxylates

In order to study the specificity for the contraluminal sulfate transport system the inhibitory potency of disulfonates, di-, tricarboxylates and sulfocarboxylates on the 35SO2−4 influx from the interstitium into cortical tubular cells in situ has been determined. The following was found: 1) Methane- and ethane-disulfonate as well as benzene-1,3-disulfonate inhibit contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx (with an (app. Ki of 2 − or OH-group in position 4. However, OH-groups at position 4 and 5 or 4 and 6 abolish the inhibitory potency. 3) The naphthalene disulfonates tested inhibit only if they have an OH-group in ortho-position to one SO3H group. 4) The stilbene disulfonates H2DIDS and DNDS inhibit the contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx with high (app. Ki ≈0.8 mmol/l), DADS with lower potency (app. Ki ≈6 mmol/l). 5) Amongst the tested aliphatic di- and tricarboxylates inhibition was exerted by oxalate (app. Ki 1.1 mmol/l) and maleate (app. Ki 3.8 mmol/l), but not by malonate, hydroxymalonate and citrate. 6) Out of the tested benzenedicarboxylates only those inhibit which have the COO−-groups directly on the ring in 1,2 and 1,3 position (app. Ki 4.0 and 2.7 mmol/l), but not in the 1,4 position. An additional OH-group in position 4 augments the inhibitory potency of 1,3 benzene-dicarboxylates (app. Ki 0.8 mmol/l), while an OH group on position 5 abolishes it. 7) The benzene tricarboxylates (BTC) inhibit in the sequence 1,2,3-BTC>1,3,5-BTC>1,2,4-BTC (app. Ki 0.9, 1.5 and 4.2 mmol/l, respectively). 8) The carboxy-benzene-sulfonates inhibit also in the 1,2 and 1,3 position only (app. Ki 6.7 and 5 mmol/l), but not in the 1,4 position. Addition of an −OH-group to the 3-carboxy-1-benzene-sulfonate forming 4-hydroxy-3-carboxy-1-benzene-sulfate augments the inhibitory potency drastically (app. Ki 0.32 mmol/l), while a NH2 substitution at the same position leaves it unchanged (app. Ki 4.7 mmol/l). If, however, ethylamine instead of NH2 is used as substituent, the inhibitory potency is almost as high as of 4-hydroxy-3-carboxy-1-benzene-sulfonate (app. Ki≈0.6 mmol/l). Amongst the dicarboxy-benzene-sulfonates, 3,4-carboxy-benzene-1-sulfonate inhibits (app. Ki ca. 2 mmol/l), while 3,5-carboxy-benzene-1-sulfonate does not. The data indicate that a strong interaction of substrate with the sulfate transporter is given, when two charged groups (COO− and/or SO−3) are present in a distance equivalent to the meta-position on the benzene ring and an additional hydrogen bond forming OH- or −NH-group. Hydrogen bond forming groups and charged groups in other positions usually abolish the inhibitory potency

Contraluminal sulfate transport in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. I. Kinetics, effects of K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, H⁺ and anions

In order to study contraluminal sulfate transport the influx rate of 35SO2−4 from the interstitium into cortical tubular cells has been determined. Preloading of the rat with sulfate augmented contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx; preperfusion with sulfate-free solutions diminished it. The contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx in sulfate-loaded animals followed two parameter kinetics (Km 1.4 mmol/l, Jmax 1.2 pmol·s−1·cm−1). The contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx (starting concentration 10 μmol/l) did not change when the K+ concentration was varied between 4 and 40 mmol/l and the Ca2+ concentration from zero to 3 mmol/l. Omission of Na+ from the perfusates augmented contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx markedly. The increase is larger at pH 6 than at pH 7.4. Changes of pH affect contraluminal 35SO2−4 influx only when the solutions are Na+- and K+-free. Under these conditions the 35SO2−4 influx decreased when the ambient pH was raised from pH 6.0 to pH 8.0. Thiosulfate, selenate, molybdate, oxalate, phosphate, arsenate, and bicarbonate exerted competitive inhibition, while formate, 2-oxoglutarate and paraaminohippurate showed a biphasic response: inhibition at 50 mmol/l, no inhibition at 150 mmol/l. Chloride and bicarbonate inhibited 35SO2−4 influx at 10 μmol/l 35SO2−4, but augmented sulfate influx at 5 mmol/l 35SO2−4 concentration in rats not preloaded with sulfate. The data indicate the presence of a contraluminal sulfate transport system which is shared by a variety of inorganic and organic anions. The biphasic behaviour of some anions suggests parallel pathways leading to a cis-inhibition at small and trans-stimulation at high anion concentrations. Na+ and H+ may be cotransported or interact with the transport system at a modifier site

Contraluminal para-aminohippurate (PAH) transport in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. II. Specificity: aliphatic dicarboxylic acids

In order to study the specificity for contraluminal para-aminohippurate (PAH) transport, the inhibitory potency of aliphatic dicarboxylates on 3H-PAH influx, as well as the inhibitory effect on 35SO2−4 - and 3H-succinate influx, from the interstitium into cortical tubular cells in situ has been determined. The following was found: 1. Testing a homologous series of dicarboxylates-ranging from the 2 C oxalate to the 10 C sebacate — PAH transport was inhibited by succinate (app. Ki 1.35 mmol/l), and all longer dicarboxylates, with high potency (app. Ki 0.05–0.35 mmol/l). Sulfate transport was inhibited only by oxalate (app. Ki 1.1 mmol/l), while dicarboxylate transport was inhibited by succinate, glutarate, adipate and pimelate with decreasing potency (app. Ki 0.04, 0.24, 0.91, 4.0 mmol/l, respectively). 2. PAH transport was inhibited by succinate and glutarate with high potency (app. Ki 1.35 and 0.05 mmol/l), by the correspondent monomethylester to a lesser extent (app. Ki 1.7 and 0.74 mmol/l), but not by the dimethylester. On the other hand, the semialdehyde of succinate with a Ki-value of 1.2 mmol/l, had the same inhibitory potency as succinate itself, while the dialdehyde of glutarate (app. Ki 1.4 mmol/l) was much less potent as glutarate. 3. Introduction of an oxo-, methyl- or sulfhydroxylgroup onto the 2-position of succinate, or of an oxo-group onto the 2-position of glutarate moderately augmented the inhibitory potency against PAH-uptake. However, introduction of a 2-hydroxy group onto succinate or glutarate in thel-position reduced the inhibitory potency more than in thed-position. Introduction of two methyl-, sulfhydryl- or hydroxyl-groups in the 2–3-position of succinate reduced or abolished its inhibitory potency. The introduction of a 2-amino group onto succinate or glutarate abolished its effect on PAH transport. However, N-acetylation or N-benzoylation led to a restitution in inhibitory potency. 4. The trans-isomers fumarate and mesaconate inhibited PAH- and methylsuccinate transport, while the cis-isomers maleate and citraconate did so to a lesser extent or not at all. The effect was reversed with the tricarboxylic aconitates, because cis-aconitate bears a CH2-extended COOH-group in trans-position and trans-aconitate in cis-position. The data indicate that there exist three different anion transport systems at the contraluminal cell side of the proximal renal tubule: 1. a sulfate-oxalate transporter, 2. a sodium-dependent dicarboxylate transporter, and 3. a paraaminohippurate transporter. The PAH transport system accepts dicarboxylates with chain length higher than 7.5 Å (=distance between the terminal oxygen atoms), while the dicarboxylate transport interacts with dicarboxylates with a chain length between 6.5 and 10 Å. Both transport systems prefer the transconfiguration. The effect of side groups on the interaction of dicarboxylates with the PAH-transport system is due mainly to hydrophobicity and electron configuration

Contraluminal para-aminohippurate transport in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. III. Specificity: monocarboxylic acids

In order to study the specificity of the contraluminal para-aminohippurate (PAH) transport system, the inhibitory potency of monocarboxylates on the 3H-PAH influx from the interstitium into cortical tubular cells in situ has been determined. The following was found: if a homologous series of fatty acids with increasing chain length is tested, inhibition of contraluminal PAH influx is first seen with valerate (app. Ki 1.4 mmol/l), increasing up to nonanoate (app. Ki 0.06 mmol/l) and remaining in this range up to duodecanoate, the last compound of this series which is sufficiently water-soluble. Similarly, the inhibitory potency of aromatic monocarboxylates increases with increasing hydrophobicity. If the fatty acids are esterified, their inhibitory potency is lost. If they are transformed to the respective aldehydes their inhibitory potency is preserved at a reduced degree. Introduction of a hydrophobic methyl-, ethyl-, or propyl-group increases the inhibitory potency. A β-, but not an α-oxo-group augments the inhibitory potency of phenylpropionate analogs, an OH group diminishes it, and a NH2 group abolishes it. Among phenyl-fatty acids an increase in affinity is observed from phenyl- +/succinate influx. The data indicate that the PAH transporter interacts with monocarboxylates and also with aldehydes which have a hydrophobic moiety. An additional oxo-group facilitates the interaction. Thus, the benzoyl compounds show the highest affinity observed

Phosphate transport in the proximal convolution of the rat kidney. I. Tubular heterogeneity, effect of parathyroid hormone in acute and chronic parathyroidectomized animals and effect of phosphate diet

The standing droplet method was applied in combination with microperfusion of the peritubular blood capillaries to determine the build up of transtubular concentration differences of phosphate (Pi) in proximal convoluted tubules. As revealed in experiments with chronic parathyroidectomized (PTX) rats, the time dependent decrease of the intraluminal Pi concentration, or increase of transtubular Pi concentration difference (ΔcPi), changes along the proximal convolution in a ratio 4:2:1 in the first quarter: second plus third quarter: fourth quarter. In acute (>2 h) PTX ratsΔcPi decreased by 31% in the first and by 41% in the fourth quarter of the convolution when parathyroid hormone (PTH; 5 U initially and 12 U/h continuously) was infused. In chronic (>2 days) PTX rats the correspondent values of 17% and 29% were significantly smaller. When the rats were kept for 7–11 weeks on a low phosphate diet (i transport was in the range of that of the PTX rats. PTH infusion, however, diminished the Pi reabsorption rate in the fourth quarter of the convolution only, but not that in the early parts of the convolution. On the contrary, rats kept for the same time on a high phosphate diet (2%) showed all along the proximal convolution one by one third of the phosphate transport rate of animals on a low phosphate diet. Acute parathyroidectomy of the high P diet rats led to 51% increase in Pi transport. The data show that 1. the phosphate transport decreases as a function of proximal convolution length, 2. PTH exerts a considerable inhibitory effect on Pi transport only in acute PTX rats, while the effect in chronic PTX rats is rather small, 3. the P content of the diet inversely correlates with the Pi transport. 4. further with low P diet the PTH inhibits Pi transport in late, but not in early segments of the proximal convolution

Active sulfate reabsorption in the proximal convolution of the rat kidney: specificity, Na⁺ and HCO₃^- dependence

Using the standing droplet technique in the proximal convolution and simultaneous microperfusion of the peritubular capillaries, the decrease in luminal sulfate concentration with time and the zero net flux transtubular concentration difference of sulfate (delta CSO42-) at 45 s was determined - the latter being taken as a measure of the rate of active sulfate reabsorption. Starting with 0.5 mmol/l sulfate in both perfusates the delta CSO42- value of 0.35 mmol/l was approached exponentially with a half value time of 4.3 s. The delta CSO42- values in the early proximal and late proximal convolution did not deviate from each other. If the Na+ concentration in the perfusates was reduced, the delta CSO42- approached zero and extrapolated to a slightly negative value (Ci greater than Co). When 1 mmol/l ouabain was added to the perfusates delta CSO42- decreased by 66% (the latter experiments were performed in the golden hamster which is more sensitive to ouabain than the rat). 1 mmol/l thiosulfate diminished delta CSO42- by 68% and 1 mmol/l molybdate by 24%. Omitting or replacing bicarbonate by HEPES or glycodiazine reduced the sulfate reabsorption significantly, while acetazolamide (0.1 mmol/l) and increasing the CO2-pressure from 4.66 to 14.0 kPa (i.e. 5-15% CO2) had no effect. SITS 1 mmol/l had no effect on sulfate reabsorption. The data indicate that the sulfate reabsorption is driven by a Na+ gradient and inhibited by thiosulfate and molybdate, i.e. molecules which have a similar tetrahedral molecule structure. The sulfate reabsorption depends in an undefined manner on the presence of bicarbonate ions

Contraluminal para-aminohippurate (PAH) transport in the proximal tubule of the rat kidney. IV. Specificity: mono- and polysubstituted benzene analogs

In order to study the specificities of the contraluminal anion transport systems, the inhibitory potency of substituted benzene analogs on influx of [3H]PAH, [14C]succinate, and [35S]sulfate from the interstitium into cortical tubular cells has been determined in situ: (1) Contraluminal [3H]PAH influx is moderately inhibited by benzene-carboxylate and benzene-sulfonate, and strongly by benzene-dicarboxylates,-disulfonates and carboxy-benzene-sulfonates, if the substituents are located at positions 1 and 3 or 1 and 4. The affinity of the PAH transporter to polysubstituted benzoates increases with increasing hydrophobicity, decreasing electron density at the carboxyl group and decreasing pKa. Similar dependencies are observed for phenols. Benzaldehydes which do not carry an ionic negative charge are accepted by the PAH-transporter, if they possess a second partially charged aldehyde or NO2-group. (2) Contraluminal [14C]succinate influx is inhibited by benzene 1,3- or 1,4-dicarboxylates,-disulfonates and 1,3-or 1,4-carboxybenzene-sulfonates. Monosubstituted benzoates do not interact with the dicarboxylate transporter, but NO2-polysubstituted benzoates do. Phenol itself and 2-substituted phenol interact weakly possibly due to oligomer formation. (3) The contraluminal sulfate transporter interacts only with compounds which show a negative group accumulation such as 3,5-dinitro- or 3,5-dichloro-substituted salicylates. The data are consistent with three separate anion transport systems in the contraluminal membrane: The PAH transporter interacts with hydrophobic molecules carrying one or two negative charges (−COO−, −SO−3) or two or more than two partial negative charges (−OH, −CHO, −SO2NH2, −NO2). The dicarboxylate transporter requires two electronegative ionic charges (−COO−, −SO−3) at 5–9 Å distance or one ionic and several partial charges (−Cl, −NO2) at a favourable distance. The sulfate transporter interacts with molecules which have neighbouring electronegative charge accumulation