Cross-Sectional Association between Length of Incarceration and Selected Risk Factors for Non-Communicable Chronic Diseases in Two Male Prisons of Mexico City

<div><p>Background</p><p>Mexico City prisons are characterized by overcrowded facilities and poor living conditions for housed prisoners. Chronic disease profile is characterized by low prevalence of self reported hypertension (2.5%) and diabetes (1.8%) compared to general population; 9.5% of male inmates were obese. There is limited evidence regarding on the exposure to prison environment over prisoner’s health status; particularly, on cardiovascular disease risk factors. The objective of this study is to assess the relationship between length of incarceration and selected risk factors for non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs).</p><p>Methods and Findings</p><p>We performed a cross-sectional analysis using data from two large male prisons in Mexico City (n = 14,086). Using quantile regression models we assessed the relationship between length of incarceration and selected risk factors for NCDs; stratified analysis by age at admission to prison was performed. We found a significant negative trend in BMI and WC across incarceration length quintiles. BP had a significant positive trend with a percentage change increase around 5% mmHg. The greatest increase in systolic blood pressure was observed in the older age at admission group.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>This analysis provides insight into the relationship between length of incarceration and four selected risk factors for NCDs; screening for high blood pressure should be guarantee in order to identify at risk individuals and linked to the prison’s health facility. It is important to assess prison environment features to approach potential risk for developing NCDs in this context.</p></div

Inmates’ general characteristics, selected risk factors and type 2 diabetes risk factor questionnaire characteristics by prison facility.

<p>Inmates’ general characteristics, selected risk factors and type 2 diabetes risk factor questionnaire characteristics by prison facility.</p

Median change per year of incarceration for the main outcomes; stratified by age at admission to the prison. (Quantile regression model estimates).

<p>BMI and WC models adjusted by current age, facility and interaction term between length of incarceration and facility. BP models adjusted by age, facility, BMI and interaction term between length of incarceration and facility.</p><p>Median change per year of incarceration for the main outcomes; stratified by age at admission to the prison. (Quantile regression model estimates).</p

Serum 25–Hydroxyvitamin D₃ and Mammography Density among Mexican Women

<div><p>Low circulating levels of vitamin D and high mammographic density (MD) have been associated with higher risk of breast cancer. Although some evidence suggested an inverse association between circulating vitamin D and MD, no studies have investigated this association among Mexican women. We examined whether serum 25−hydroxyvitamin D3 [25(OH)D3] levels were associated with MD in a cross-sectional study nested within the large Mexican Teacher's Cohort. This study included 491 premenopausal women with a mean age of 42.9 years. Serum 25(OH)D3 levels were measured by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Linear regression and non-linear adjusted models were used to estimate the association of MD with serum 25(OH)D3. Median serum 25(OH)D3 level was 27.3 (23.3–32.8) (ng/ml). Forty one (8%) women had 25(OH)D3 levels in the deficient range (< 20 ng/ml). Body mass index (BMI) and total physical activity were significantly correlated with 25(OH)D3 (r = −0.109, P = 0.019 and r = 0.095, P = 0.003, respectively). In the multivariable linear regression, no significant association was observed between 25(OH)D3 levels and MD overall. However, in stratified analyses, higher serum 25(OH)D3 levels (≥27.3 ng/ml) were significantly inversely associated with percent MD among women with BMI below the median (β = −0.52, P = 0.047). Although no significant association was observed between serum 25(OH)D3 and percent MD in the overall population, specific subgroups of women may benefit from higher serum 25(OH)D3 levels.</p></div

Fractional polynomial modelling of the association of serum 25(OH)D3 (ng/ml) with percent mammography density (MD).

<p>A model with 95%CI among women with: A) BMI < median (< 27.4 kgm²), B) BMI ≥ median (≥ 27.4 kgm²).</p

Correlation between serum 25(OH)D3 and other risk factors.

<p>Correlation between serum 25(OH)D3 and other risk factors.</p

Multivariable linear regression estimates of percent MD (%), dense area (cm²), and non-dense area (cm²).

<p>Multivariable linear regression estimates of percent MD (%), dense area (cm²), and non-dense area (cm²).</p

Characteristics of the study population across predefined cut-points of serum 25(OH)D3.

<p>Characteristics of the study population across predefined cut-points of serum 25(OH)D3.</p

Prevalence of transmissible infections by sex and age.

<p>Note: ncr: no cases reported. na: not applicable.</p><p>* In general population: HBV core Ab +.</p><p>** Insufficient sample size.</p><p>Prevalence of transmissible infections by sex and age.</p

Prevalence of physical and sexual violence and sexual risk behavior before and during imprisonment.

<p>Note: na: not applicable.</p><p>Prevalence of physical and sexual violence and sexual risk behavior before and during imprisonment.</p