Polyacrylamide as a tool for controlling sediment runoff and improving infiltration under furrow irrigation

Water-soluble anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) has been shown to be effective in controlling topsoil erosion, preventing sedimentation of waterways, and simultaneously improving infiltration rates for furrow irrigation in the western USA (Lentz et al. 1992; Lentz and Sojka 1994). PAM injected as a pulse into the irrigation stream as the water advances has a stabilizing effect on the surface soil in the furrow. Controlling sediment runoff under intensive irrigation has the dual advantage of conserving fertile topsoil and reducing downstream pollution from sediments in waterways, particularly suspended sediments. Topsoil losses of 5 - 50 tonnes ha' yr 4 have been reported from irrigated fields on erodible soils in the US Pacific Northwest. Polymers provide farmers with a practical and economic management tool for conserving soil and preventing sedimentation of waterways from irrigated fields. Increased net infiltration, which translates to more efficient water use, is a secondary benefit, especially for semiarid and arid environments where water supplies are limited. Results from field experiments on a highly erodible Portneuf silt loam (Durixerollic Calciorthid) in southern Idaho are presented comparing the efficacy of three different molecular weights of PAM for controlling sediment runoff and infiltration rates. Some potential environmental impacts of PAM applications under furrow irrigation are briefly discussed

Scanning electron micrographs of polyacrylamide-treated soil in irrigation furrows

Polyacrylamide (PAM) is used at rates of i to 2 kg ha per irrigation on a half million hectares of United States irrigated farmland to prevent 94% of irrigation-induced erosion and to enhance infiltration by 15% to 50% on medium to fine-textured soils. The polyacrylamides used for this application are large (12 to 15 megagrams per mole), water-soluble anion molecules applied in the irrigation stream. Erosion prevention has been shown to result from stabilized soil structure in the i to 5 mm veneer of surface soil that regulates infiltration, runoff, and sediment loss on water application. We hypothesized that this could be confirmed from scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of PAM-treated soil. Both untreated and PAM-treated soils form surface seals in irrigation furrows, but the stable surface structure of PAM-treated furrows is more pervious. This is thought to result from a greater number of continuous unblocked pores at the soil-water interface. SEMs of PAM-treated and untreated soil microstructures are presented from thin surface samples of Portneuf silt loam, collected from furrows immediately following an irrigation, and freeze-dried. SEMs of PAM-treated soil showed net or web-like microstructural surface coatings about 1um thick on soil mineral particles, giving a glue-like porous appearance. Individual strands of PAM were about 0.2 in diameter. Strands of PAM aggregated the soil by ensnaring and bridging mineral particles while untreated soil had poorly aggregated, unconnected particles. Thus, microstructural differences between PAM-treated and untreated soil from irrigation furrows were consistent with erosion and infiltration results

Polymer charge and molecular weight effects on treated irrigation furrow processes

Application of 5-10 mg L-1 water soluble anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) to furrow irrigation water during flow advance substantially reduces sediment loss and increases net infiltration. We hypothesized that PAM_s solvated molecular conformation influences its irrigation-management efficacy. The study was conducted in Kimberly, Idaho, on Portneuf silt loam (Durinodic Xeric Haplocalcids); under furrow- irrigated beans (Phaseolus vulgaris ) at a 1.5% slope. Polyacrylamides with contrasting molecular weight (anionic: 4-7, 12-15 and 14-17 MDa, i.e. Mg mol -1 ), charge type (neutral, anionic, cationic), and charge density (8, 19, 35 mol %) were tested in two studies. Inflow rate was 23 L min d during furrow advance, and 15 L min-1 for the remaining set. Anionic and neutral PAMs were twice as effective as cationic PAMs for controlling sediment loss in new furrows. The order of effectiveness for overall soilloss control was: anionic > neutral > cationic PAM, and efficacy increased with increasing charge density and/or molecular weight. Net furrow infiltration increased by 14 to 19% when PAM treatment molecular weight was reduced from 17 to 4 MDa. General trends suggested that medium and high charge density anionic and neutral PAM produced the greatest increase in infiltration compared with controls. Compared with untreated furrows, neutral PAM gave the greatest season-long net infiltration gains (5%); while charged PAMs tended to increase net infiltration early in the season on new furrows but decreased infiltration on repeat-irrigated furrows later in the season

Net and Tension infiltration effects of PAM in furrow irrigation

The history and fundamental aspects of polyacrylamide (PAM)-use in furrow irrigation water has been covered in depth in several publications (Barvenik, 1994; Lentz et al., 1992; Lentz and Sojka, 1994a; Lentz, 1995; Lentz and Sojka, 1996; Sojka and Lentz, 1996; Sojka and Lentz, 1997). In agriculture, the two greatest benefits associated with this practice are the near elimination of furrow erosion and substantial increases in infiltration compared to untreated water. The large erosion reduction has both on-site and downstream economic and environmental benefits (Agassi et al., 1995 ; Bahr et al., 1996; Bahr and Steiber, 1996; Lentz et al., 1992; Lentz, 1995; Lentz and Sojka, 1996; McCutchan eta!., 1993; Singh et al., 1996; Sojka and Lentz, 1993; Sojka and Lentz, 19946; Sojka et al., 1995; Sojka and Lentz, 1997). Infiltration effects are a substantial aspect of these benefits, but have been less thoroughly considered in data reported to date

Subsoiling and surface tillage effects on soil physical properties and forage oat stand and yield

Much of New Zealand's agriculture integrates animal and crop production on poorly drained, easily compacted soils. We hypothesized that soil properties affecting forage oat (Avena sativa, cv Awapuni) establishment on land compacted by 15 years of conventional cropping might be influenced by various subsoiling and surface tillage combinations. Plots on a Moutoa silty clay (Typic Haplaquoil) were paraplowed (P), deep subsoiled (V), shallow subsoiled (5), or were left as non-subsoiled controls (C). Subsequently, the surface 15 cm was surface-tilled (T) using a power rotary-tiller and firmed with a Cambridge roller or were not tilled (N). Oats were then sown with a cross-slot drill. Subsoiling greatly reduced soil strength. Cone indices showed disruption to 40cm with P, 36 cm for V, and 30 cm for S. Approximately 60% of profile cone indices to a depth of 0.5 m from subsoiled treatments were less than 1.5 MPa, compared to approximately 30% for C. T slightly improved strength distribution in non-subsoiled controls but had little effect in subsoiled treatments. Subsoiling without T continued to show improved profile cone index cumulative frequency 233 days after subsoiling, Subsoiling after T in this high rainfall climate eliminated most of the separation in cumulative frequency of soil profile cone index values by two weeks after T. T reduced emergence from 142 to 113 plants per square meter and reduced yield from 5318 to 3679 kg ha-1. Forage yield increased from 3974 to 4674 kg ha-1 with subsoiling. Soil porosity, saturated and slightly unsaturated hydraulic conductivities (KSAT and K_40 ) and air permeability were highly variable but generally increased with subsoiling. Oxygen diffusion rate (ODR) (using Pt microelectrodes) was also variable, but N and C treatments had consistently lower ODRs than T or subsoiled treatments. Generally, subsoiling without T produced better soil conditions and oat crop performance than the prevailing New Zealand practice of T without subsoiling

Quantum Kinetic Theory III: Quantum kinetic master equation for strongly condensed trapped systems

We extend quantum kinetic theory to deal with a strongly Bose-condensed atomic vapor in a trap. The method assumes that the majority of the vapor is not condensed, and acts as a bath of heat and atoms for the condensate. The condensate is described by the particle number conserving Bogoliubov method developed by one of the authors. We derive equations which describe the fluctuations of particle number and phase, and the growth of the Bose-Einstein condensate. The equilibrium state of the condensate is a mixture of states with different numbers of particles and quasiparticles. It is not a quantum superposition of states with different numbers of particles---nevertheless, the stationary state exhibits the property of off-diagonal long range order, to the extent that this concept makes sense in a tightly trapped condensate.Comment: 3 figures submitted to Physical Review

Twin Paradox and the logical foundation of relativity theory

We study the foundation of space-time theory in the framework of first-order logic (FOL). Since the foundation of mathematics has been successfully carried through (via set theory) in FOL, it is not entirely impossible to do the same for space-time theory (or relativity). First we recall a simple and streamlined FOL-axiomatization SpecRel of special relativity from the literature. SpecRel is complete with respect to questions about inertial motion. Then we ask ourselves whether we can prove usual relativistic properties of accelerated motion (e.g., clocks in acceleration) in SpecRel. As it turns out, this is practically equivalent to asking whether SpecRel is strong enough to "handle" (or treat) accelerated observers. We show that there is a mathematical principle called induction (IND) coming from real analysis which needs to be added to SpecRel in order to handle situations involving relativistic acceleration. We present an extended version AccRel of SpecRel which is strong enough to handle accelerated motion, in particular, accelerated observers. Among others, we show that the Twin Paradox becomes provable in AccRel, but it is not provable without IND.Comment: 24 pages, 6 figure

Synthetic- and bio-polymer use for runoff water quality management in irrigation agriculture

Low concentrations of synthetic- or bio-polymers in irrigation water can nearly eliminate sediment, N, ortho- and total-P, DOM, pesticides, micro-organisms, and weed seed from runoff. These environmentally safe polymers are employed in various sensitive uses including food processing, animal feeds, and potable water purification. The most common synthetic polymer is anionic, high purity polyacrylamide (PAM), which typically provides 70-90% contaminant elimination. Excellent results are achieved adding only 10 ppm PAM to irrigation water, applying 1 -2 kg ha. -1 per irrigation, costing $4-$12 kg -1 . Biopolymers are less effective. Using twice or higher concentrations, existing biopolymers are ,r=60% effective as PAM, at 2 - 3 times the cost. A half million ha of US irrigated land use PAM for erosion control and runoff protection. The practice is spreading rapidly in the US and worldwide. Interest in development of biopolymer surrogates for PAM is high. If the supply of cheap natural gas (raw material for PAM synthesis) diminishes, industries may seek alternative polymers. Also "green" perceptions and preferences favor biopolymers for certain application

Polyacrylamide effects on infiltration in irrigated agriculture

Using polyacrylamide (PAM) following the NRCS conservation practice standard increases infiltration in furrow irrigation. PAM at 10 g in-' (10 ppm) during water advance nearly precludes detachment and transport of soil in furrows. If any sediment is entrained in the flow, it is readily flocculated in the presence of PAM and settles to the furrow-bottom in loose pervious structures. It was hypothesized that depositional surface seals that block pores are reduced or made more permeable with PAM. On Portneuf silt beams (coarse-silty, mixed, superactive, Durinodic Xeric Haplocalcid) furrow irrigation net infiltration increased 15%. Net increases on finer textured soils were generally higher. Furrow streams containing more than 5 g L (5,000 ppm) sediment reduced infiltration and infiltration rate more than fivefold compared to streams of clean water. Tension infiltrometry confirmed that PAM's maintenance of open pores to the furrow surface provides the infiltration increase mechanism. Infiltration rates at 40 and 100 min (1.6 and 3.9 inches) tension in PAM-treated furrows were double the rates of control furrows. Recirculating infiltrometer data showed a 30% infiltration increase with PAM use and infiltration was inversely related to maximum sediment concentration in the flow. Furrow inflow of 45 L min-1 (12 gal min-1 ) with PAM treatment decreased stream advance time 13% while reducing sediment loss 76% compared to untreated 23 L min-1 (6 gal min-1) inflows. Use of PAM in sprinkler irrigation streams reduced runoff 70% and sediment loss 75%, but tension infiltration measurements were inconsistent, suggesting changes in surface-sealing effects with sprinkler application of PAM are transient

Synthetic- and Bio-polymer use for runoff water quality management in irrigated agriculture

Low concentrations of synthetic- or bio-polymers in irrigation water can nearly eliminate sediment, N, ortho- and total-P, DOM, pesticides, micro-organisms, and weed seed from runoff. These environmentally safe polymers are employed in various sensitive uses including food processing, animal feeds, and potable water purification. The most common synthetic polymer is anionic, high purity polyacrylamide (PAM), which typically provides 70-90% contaminant elimination. Excellent results are achieved adding only 10 ppm PAM to irrigation water, applying 1-2 kg ha-lper irrigation, costing $4-$12 kg-1. Biopolymers are less effective, but show promise; they include starch co-polymers, microfibril suspensions, chitin, polysaccharides and protein derivatives. Using twice or higher concentrations, existing biopolymers are ~60% effective as PAM, at 2-3 times the cost kg-1. A half million ha of US irrigated land use PAM for erosion control and runoff protection. The practice is spreading rapidly in the US and worldwide. Interest in development of biopolymer surrogates for PAM is high. If the supply of cheap natural gas (raw material for PAM synthesis) diminishes, industries may seek alternative polymers. Also "green" perceptions and preferences favor biopolymers for certain applications. More complete history, user/technical information and bibliography are found at