Characterization of peri-urban anthropogenic pollution in Kampala, Uganda

Effective improvement of the current poor environmental sanitation in peri-urban Kampala requires an understanding of pollutant characteristics (types, sources, locations and loads). As part of an on going study, this paper presents pollution characteristics in Bwaise III and challenges encountered during the period 2002-3. Findings show that pit latrines are a major source of pollution as far as pathogenic bacteria and nutrients are concerned (14.5E20 cfu TTC /yr, 41,775kgN/yr and 6,680KgP/yr). Drains on the other hand, though they have lower levels of nutrients (980kgTKN/yr and 80kgP/yr for sullage) are recipients of runoff, solid waste and faecal matter and hence a major problem in the area especially during the rains. The impact of these on the environment and community health are mutually reinforcing. Challenges encountered during the study have been overcome largely by dialogue. Management strategies and mitigation measures for these areas require the collective participation of communities, authorities and policy makers

Training for improved decentralized service delivery - a case study from Uganda

The introduction of decentralization and decentralized service delivery in Uganda placed an increased demand for qualified personnel at the districts and lower levels. Despite this, there were no efforts in the past to enlighten students and trainers at Makerere University about the existing gaps and opportunities available in districts so that the training could be tuned to the needs of the districts. In the year 2000, the Department of Civil Engineering in Makerere University started a pilot project to attach students to the technical departments of the district local governments to undertake internship training for a period of 8 weeks. The students were supervised by staff from districts and the Department of Civil Engineering, Makerere University. The project was financed by the Rockefeller foundation and the World Bank. Since then, 72 students (11 during the pilot and 61 during the full implementation phase) have undergone internship training in 9 districts in Uganda. Eleven (11) Makerere staff and over 90 district staff were involved in the project. A training manual was developed, relevant research to solve technical problems and assist the districts in improved service delivery was identified, and efforts are under way to evaluate the project and quantify the impact

Learning opportunities for sanitation improvements in informal settlements of East African cities

Progress towards full sanitation coverage in urban areas is slow, with one of the big challenges in East Africa and many other areas being reaching the large proportion who live in informal settlements. The unique characteristics of informal settlements impose varying challenges in installing adequate sanitation facilities. A comparative case study using mixed methods conducted in three East African cities revealed varied perceptions of the residents on barriers hindering the process of toilet installation. Lack of money, topography, lack of space, siting on marginal land, difficult to access sanitation material and services and lack of information were perceived as barriers by residents, but differed between cities. There are different examples of successful strategies to tackle the barriers to sanitation in each city and these offer some opportunities for each of the study cities, as well as other cities with similar challenges, to learn how the same challenges are tackled elsewhere

Low cost faecal sludge dewatering and carbonisation for production of fuel briquettes

Globally, there is an increasing demand for energy to support development needs. The challenge of inadequate energy resources is more pronounced in developing countries/ regions like the Sub Saharan Africa. The quench for energy resources has translated into environmental degradation contributing to climate change. The waste industry is also growing with corresponding increase in population and urbanization. Most of the wastes especially municipal and domestic wastes contribute to global warming. This study sought to devise means of utilizing some waste streams like faecal sludge to partly address the energy deficiency in developing countries, but also trigger studies in similar line. The application of the findings in the study will also solve public health and sanitation issues in urban or peri-urban areas. In this paper, one will find effective and efficient means of dewatering and carbonizing faecal sludge to produce fuel briquettes for cooking

Calibrating an optimal condition model for solar water disinfection in peri-urban household water treatment in Kampala, Uganda

This study investigated the efficacy of the SODIS treatment method in Uganda and determined the optimal condition for effective disinfection.In low income settlements where the quality of drinking water is highly contaminated due to poor hygienic practices at community and household levels, there is need for appropriate, simple, affordable and environmentally sustainable household water treatment technology. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) that utilizes both the thermal and ultra-violet effect of solar radiation to disinfect water can be used to treat small quantities of water at household level to improve its bacteriological quality for drinking purposes. This study investigated the efficacy of the SODIS treatment method in Uganda and determined the optimal condition for effective disinfection. Results of raw water samples from the study area showed deterioration in bacteriological quality of water moved from source to the household; from 3 to 36 cfu/100 mL for tap water and 75 to 126 cfu/100 mL for spring water, using thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs) as indicator microorganisms. SODIS experiments showed over 99.9% inactivation of TTCs in 6 h of exposure, with a threshold temperature of 39.5± 0.7 WC at about 12:00 noon, in the sun during a clear sunny day. A mathematical optimal condition model for effective disinfection has been calibrated to predict the decline of the number of viable microorganisms over time

Household drinking water characteristics in a peri-urban community: the case of Kifumbira Zone, Kampala, Uganda

A study to determine the drinking water quality improvement practises at household level was undertaken in Kifumbira Zone, a Kampala peri-urban area, Uganda. The socio-economic conditions of 150 households were identified using questionnaires and in-depth interviews. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) was introduced to 10 households and water from their boiled drinking water and SODIS treated water was monitored for three months. The social survey indicated that boiling was the most common method applied to improve the drinking water quality – mainly using charcoal and electricity. 65% of the respondent households boiled their drinking water, while the rest consumed it unboiled due to the high cost of charcoal. The raw water sources exhibited microbiological contamination as evidenced by the presence of thermotolerant coliforms and high risk scores on the sanitary inspections conducted. There was a statistically significant difference (p<0.05; n=15) in the mean count of thermotolerant coliforms for boiled and SODIS treated water

Socio-Institutional Drivers of Groundwater Contamination Hazards: The Case of On-Site Sanitation in the Bwaise Informal Settlement, Kampala, Uganda

This is a research article which contributes to the development of a socio-institutional assessment framework based on a case study of contamination by on-site sanitation (OSS) in an informal settlement of Bwaise (Kampala, Uganda).Socio-institutional factors are poorly addressed in the risk assessment of groundwater contamination. This paper contributes to the development of a socio-institutional assessment framework based on a case study of contamination by on-site sanitation (OSS) in an informal settlement of Bwaise (Kampala, Uganda). We conducted a snapshot survey of the recent extent of groundwater contamination by OSS using microbial and hydro-chemical indicators. Through transition arenas and key informant interviews, we investigated the socio-institutional drivers of the contamination. Overall, 14 out of the 17 sampled groundwater sources tested positive for Escherichia coli during the wet season. Nitrate concentrations at four sources exceeded the World Health Organization guideline value (50 mg/L), attributed to OSS. Despite the high contamination, the community highly valued groundwater as an alternative to the intermittent municipal water supply. We deduced six drivers of groundwater contamination, including land-use management, user attributes, governance, infrastructure management, groundwater valuation, and the operating environment (“LUGIVE”). Qualitative indicators for each of the drivers were also construed, and their interlinkages presented in a causal loop diagram, representing a socio-institutional assessment framework. The framework can help policymakers and the community to analyze various socio-institutional control levers to reduce the risk of groundwater contamination by OSS in informal settlements

Sanitation in informal settlements in East Africa (3ksan)

Improving access to sanitation in slums in East Africa is a challenge. The 3ksan project has been working to identify the barriers and catalysts to sanitation in Kigali, Kampala and Kisumu. Household surveys in the informal settlements in these three cities have provided insight into the different levels of service provision and demand, access to financial services, and perceptions of enforcement of the regulations. This paper presents key results from the household survey, highlighting the different challenges in the three cities

Hydrogeology of an urban weathered basement aquifer in Kampala, Uganda

Weathered basement aquifers are vital sources of drinking water in Africa. In order to better understand their role in the urban water balance, in a weathered basement aquifer in Kampala, Uganda, this study installed a transect of monitoring piezometers, carried out spring flow and high-frequency groundwater level monitoring, slug tests and hydrochemical analyses, including stable isotopes and groundwater residence time indicators. Findings showed a typical weathered basement aquifer with a 20–50-m thickness. Groundwater recharge was 3–50 mm/year, occurring during sustained rainfall. Recharge to a deep groundwater system within the saprock was slow and prolonged, while recharge to the springs on the valley slopes was quick and episodic, responding rapidly to precipitation. Springs discharged shallow groundwater, mixed with wastewater infiltrating from onsite sanitation practices and contributions from the deeper aquifer and were characterised by low flow rates (< 0.001 m3/s), low pH (<5), high nitrate values (61–190 mg/L as NO3), and residence times of <30 years. The deeper groundwater system occurred in the saprolite/saprock, had low transmissivity (< 1 × 10−5 m2/s), lower nitrate values (<20 mg/L as NO3), pH 6–6.5 and longer residence times (40–60 years). Confined groundwater conditions in the valleys were created by the presence of clay-rich alluvium and gave rise to artesian conditions where groundwater had lower nitrate concentrations. The findings provide new insights into weathered basement aquifers in the urban tropics and show that small-scale abstractions are more sustainable in the deeper groundwater system in the valleys, where confined conditions are present

Tryptophan-like and humic-like fluorophores are extracellular in groundwater: implications as real-time faecal indicators

Fluorescent natural organic matter at tryptophan-like (TLF) and humic-like fluorescence (HLF) peaks is associated with the presence and enumeration of faecal indicator bacteria in groundwater. We hypothesise, however, that it is predominantly extracellular material that fluoresces at these wavelengths, not bacterial cells. We quantified total (unfiltered) and extracellular (filtered at < 0.22 µm) TLF and HLF in 140 groundwater sources across a range of urban population densities in Kenya, Malawi, Senegal, and Uganda. Where changes in fluorescence occurred following filtration they were correlated with potential controlling variables. A significant reduction in TLF following filtration (ΔTLF) was observed across the entire dataset, although the majority of the signal remained and thus considered extracellular (median 96.9%). ΔTLF was only significant in more urbanised study areas where TLF was greatest. Beneath Dakar, Senegal, ΔTLF was significantly correlated to total bacterial cells (ρs 0.51). No significant change in HLF following filtration across all data indicates these fluorophores are extracellular. Our results suggest that TLF and HLF are more mobile than faecal indicator bacteria and larger pathogens in groundwater, as the predominantly extracellular fluorophores are less prone to straining. Consequently, TLF/HLF are more precautionary indicators of microbial risks than faecal indicator bacteria in groundwater-derived drinking water