A meristemic approach to the design of small ruminant modules in veterinary education

The word “meristem” is applied to plants as a region of growth. In this study, a veterinary curriculum in small stock is assessed from a meristemic approach, as a form of biomimicry applied to education. The word meristemic is a novel portmanteau (or blended word) derived from “meristematic” (a region of actively dividing cells) and “epistemic” (relating to knowledge). A curriculum needs to allow for areas of growth and acknowledge that students cannot carry all the necessary information with them throughout their studies and future career. This means that throughout their studies, students can learn only the necessary and relevant information and can build on such knowledge depending on what fields they chose. Thus, it is important to follow an approach based on meristems to curriculum design. This will allow students opportunities to increase knowledge and practical experience in the correct sequence during the degree and then also later in the workplace. This thesis provides a method for including meristems in a curriculum and for this purpose focusses on the small ruminant modules of the BVSc degree at the University of Pretoria. Meristemic is therefore defined as allowing areas of growth specifically related to knowledge or skills. A meristemic approach is defined as an approach using meristems as a basis for growth and is referred to in this thesis as the approach used for refining curriculum design. In this study, the method for applying a meristemic approach has been set out as a guide for use in refining curriculum design. In conceptualising the meristemic approach, a number of existing curriculum design models were evaluated. The backward design was found to be the best fit for the veterinary science degree. Other models such as ADDIE are also useful in curriculum design. However, none of the models met the requirements of the researcher to be able to refine the curriculum once designed. As a curriculum is constantly reviewed to ensure that specific requirements are met, the researcher wanted to find an approach that could be used to refine a curriculum without having to completely redesign it. The meristemic approach begins with the development of the module using the backwards design of meeting day one competencies (DOCs) of a new graduate in veterinary science. Once the curriculum is in place, aspects of the ADDIE design model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation) are used to refine this curriculum. These aspects include “Analysis” of the current curriculum (Step 1), “Implementation” which is divided into two steps in the meristemic approach (Step 2 where assessment is critically evaluated to determine whether the DOCs are being met, and Step 3 to determine whether practical content can be beneficial to the student within a particular module) and “Evaluation” where the mode of delivery of content is evaluated to determine whether face-to-face, online or a blended approach is best for specific modules (Step 4). Once these steps have been followed, nodes (meristems) can be identified within the modules. These modules are then pruned back to the nodes that were identified in order to allow for growth within the module. Once this has been done, the process may be repeated at any time without having to redesign the entire curriculum and each module within the curriculum can be refined at a time that is convenient for the staff members involved in that module and not at a predetermined time as would be the case in redesigning of an entire curriculum. With each use of the meristemic approach, new nodes will be identified as new information or techniques are presented within each discipline. The first step of the meristemic approach is to critically reflect on the current curriculum. As the researcher is primarily involved in small ruminants, and a thorough critical reflection of the entire veterinary degree is outside of the scope of this thesis, the focus is specifically on two of the small ruminant modules, but can be applied to other modules within the degree. These two modules are evaluated in terms of a set of criteria that were discussed during a workshop on curriculum design. The second step is to evaluate the assessment methods used. The assessment in the fifth year of the degree was used for this purpose and was assessed in terms of setting cut-scores, the level of knowledge required to complete the assessment and which of the day one competencies the assessment was able to cover. This study also revealed the relationships between cut scores, cognitive level and the number of day one competencies addressed. Expert judges set cut-scores using a modified Angoff method. This study revealed that the best criteria to use for choosing expert judges to set these cut-scores (when convening a large group of judges is not possible) is the proportion of time spent by the practitioner in the relevant discipline. The number of day one competencies covered by each question is directly correlated to the cognitive level of each question. Thus, cognitive level is an important consideration when setting cut scores and can be related to the number of day one competencies addressed. Judges were also used to determine the relevance of each of the assessment questions to allow the researcher to align the level of the module within the meristem as being foundational knowledge, core knowledge or specialist knowledge. The third step of the meristemic approach is to determine the importance of practical training in the curriculum and how the practical training can benefit student learning even within theoretical modules. The content of the assessment (and thus the modules) is evaluated and students’ performance in a theoretical assessment is compared to practitioners’ performance. The research was performed in this manner as the students had little practical experience compared to the practitioners who rely on practical experience to reinforce the theoretical training. This assists in determining whether more practical components of the degree can improve students’ theoretical knowledge. The results showed that it is essential to include the practical components from an early stage in the curriculum as practical clinical experience assists in cementing the theoretical knowledge gained. Veterinarians with the greatest number of years’ experience and who spent the majority of their time within the specific discipline outperformed the students with only theoretical knowledge and colleagues with fewer years’ experience and time spent in the field. The fourth and last step in the meristemic approach is to determine how the content of the various modules should be delivered. It is determined whether face-to-face contact time during a pre-clinical module is necessary, or whether a self-directed learning approach will provide an adequate learning opportunity to enable students to integrate the acquired knowledge. The method of teaching is evaluated considering other variables such as the lecturer, topics, cognitive levels and student attitude towards a self-directed learning approach. This study showed that the method of teaching did not affect student scores. However, the topic of the content, the cognitive level and student attitudes towards self-directed learning affected student scores. It is important to note though that as cognitive levels were not consistent across topics, this could have influenced the outcome of the model. The scope of the meristemic approach is much wider than what can be addressed in a single thesis. As such, certain choices were made, and the thesis focused on those elements that were explained above. The meristemic approach is shown in a stepwise approach and this approach can be applied to any curriculum. Through this approach nodes or meristems are identified and these are used when developing specialist degrees. Thus, biomimicry can be successfully used in the form of a meristemic approach to assist academics in determining content and delivery within the design of a curriculum in order to distinguish foundational, core and specialist competencies. Further research is needed on the multitude of othThesis (PhD (Production Animal Studies))--University of Pretoria, 2020.Production Animal StudiesPhD (Production Animal Studies)Unrestricte

The effect of application of the FAMACHA© system on selected production parameters in sheep

A trial was conducted on a farm comprising a flock of approximately 300 Mutton Merinos on which the FAMACHA© system was in use. Seventy five maiden and multiparous ewes were blocked by class before being ranked by weight and then randomly allocated using block randomization, with due regard to approximately equal apportioning of the two classes of ewes, to the following three trial groups: (i) FAMACHA© (FMCH) group, in which only animals evaluated to be in FAMACHA© categories 4 and 5 (overtly anaemic) were treated with levamisole HCl 2,5% (Nemasol NF, Intervet) (ii) Strategically dosed (STRAT) group, blanket treated every six weeks with levamisole HCl 2,5% (Nemasol NF, Intervet) (iii) Suppressively dosed (SUPPR) group, blanket treated at the same intervals with injectable moxidectin 1% (Cydectin, Bayer AH) The trial was set to take place during the period of high haemonchosis risk (December to April) but data was recorded from November 2006 to July 2007. However, the deworming schedule of the trial only commenced in February 2007, due to Cydectin being out of stock until that time. All the trial animals were evaluated once weekly according to the FAMACHA© system, and Faecal Egg Counts (FECs) were performed on all groups prior to commencement of the trial, as well as during the trial period. Initial analysis of the results of all ewes, regardless of class, appeared to show that the FAMACHA© group gained, on average, 3-4 kg less (P<0.05) than the other two groups. However, these results compared groups which contained both pregnant and nonpregnant ewes. Within each treatment regimen the multiparous ewes, which accounted for most of the pregnancies, were responsible for the largest difference in weight gains. Data from ewes that became pregnant during the trial period was separated from the data of non-pregnant ewes, and analysed because the pregnant ewes did not lamb down in the same week and cannot therefore be used as an accurate comparison as they were in different stages of pregnancy at any given time. The pregnant ewes’ data was then ranked according to weeks before lambing and re-analysed. When the data was analysed separately for ewes that conceived during the trial and ewes that did not conceive, the results showed that there was no significant difference in weight gains amongst the three treatment regimens (Figure 4.2). There were no significant differences in lamb weights (Table 4.3.3) nor average daily gains (ADG), as can be seen from Tables 4.4.1 to 4.4.3. Wool production was not analysed in this trial due to faulty sample collection at shearing, but ideally it should have been included. Economic evaluation of the data initially showed that there appeared to be a benefit to dosing more frequently. During the trial period the total cost of deworming the SUPPR group was R163.51 and the liveweight gain gave an additional income of approximately R2758.00 resulting in a calculated financial gain of R2594.49 for 25 ewes when compared to the FMCH group. The cost of deworming the STRAT group for the trial period was R 104.65 and the liveweight gain gave an additional income of approximately R2261.00 which resulted in a financial gain of R2156.35 in comparison to the FMCH group for 25 ewes. The cost for deworming the FMCH group was R10.96 for the duration of the trial. However, these calculations were based on both pregnant and nonpregnant ewe data combined and therefore do not accurately reflect the cost and return for the farmer of meat had the pregnant ewes data been analysed together with those that did not fall pregnant during the trial. Once the pregnant ewes were separated from the rest, there was no significant difference between the three groups regarding liveweight gain. Therefore there was no financial benefit to the farmer in deworming either suppresively or strategically and in fact resulted in an economic loss due to the cost of anthelmintic when compared to using the FAMACHA© system. A shortage of feed due to unseasonal downpours leading to poor Body Condition Scores (BCS), forced the farmer to supplement the grazing and the FMCH group was able to make use of compensatory growth so that by the end of the trial, the was no significant difference in BCS between the groups. The FAMACHA© system allows for selective targeted use of anthelmintics, and studies to date are contradictory on whether or not production is significantly affected by applying the FAMACHA© system to control H. contortus. However, this trial concluded that there is no significant difference in selected production parameters when using the FAMACHA© system as opposed to other methods of anthelmintic use in a Mutton Merino flock in a semi-intensive farming system. The FAMACHA© system is therefore the preferred method of worm control, where the major parasite problem is Haemonchus contortus, as other methods compared in this trial are not sustainable with regards to the worldwide increase in anthelmintic resistance (AR) and now with the increase in multiple anthelmintic resistance (MAR) on certain farms. It is also evident from this trial that the FAMACHA© system cannot be used in isolation as nutrition also plays a vital role in resistance and resilience of individual animals. Therefore if nutrition and other management practices are poor, the FAMACHA© system cannot be blamed for financial and production losses.Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2010.Production Animal Studiesunrestricte

Rumenolith formation in a Bapedi ram

During a routine flock visit, a farmer observed that one of the eight tooth Bapedi rams had been losing body condition despite being separated from the flock and fed supplementary feed. The ram’s body condition score was assessed as 2 out of 5 (one point less than the average of the rest of the rams) and the teeth appeared normal with no excessive wear. The rumen was assessed by auscultation, palpation and ballottement where a foreign body (approximately 20 cm × 5 cm – 10 cm) was clearly palpated and ballotted. A rumenotomy was performed and a large mass of tightly compacted foreign matter and plant material was removed. The mass consisted of synthetic fibre, plant material and calcium phosphate (50.5%). It appeared to have formed as the result of the ingestion of a synthetic fibre which formed the nidus of a concretion. This was probably the result of deficient nutrition, with the rams eating the synthetic fibre in an attempt to increase feed intake. The ram recovered uneventfully after the rumenotomy was performed and supplementary feeding.The authors would like to thank the Nutrilab Facility, Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, for analysis of the rumenolith.http://www.jsava.co.zaam2013ab201

Mycotic rhinitis in a Mutton Merino ewe

Although nasal masses are uncommon in sheep and may have several causes, including neoplasia and bacterial, fungal and viral infections, these lesions may lead to economic losses resulting from weight loss and even death. It is therefore important to differentiate between various categories of upper respiratory tract obstructions and lower respiratory tract infections. The correct aetiological diagnosis of obstructive masses is essential for appropriate treatment and management to be given or action to be taken. The presentation, clinical signs, treatment and pathology of a case of suspected mycotic rhinitis in a 6-year-old Mutton Merino ewe, are described.http://www.jsava.co.zaam2017Paraclinical SciencesProduction Animal Studie

Incomplete reduction of branchial clefts in Mutton Merino lambs

Congenital malformations of the branchial arches, clefts and grooves have not been previously reported in sheep. These defects may be due to infectious agents (especially viruses), toxins or genetic abnormalities. Defects were reported in two of a set of quadruplet lambs born prematurely to an eight-tooth Mutton Merino ewe. The lambs weighed between 2.0 kg and 2.5 kg; this is below the normal expected birth weight of 3.5 kg for quadruplet lambs, below which viability is compromised. The firstborn lamb was severely affected by bilateral oroauricular fistulae. The second lamb was unilaterally affected on the right, less severely than the first. The third lamb was normal and the fourth was mummified. The occurrence of another case in this small flock almost a decade earlier indicates that there could be genetic involvement.http://www.jsava.co.zaam201

Schmallenberg virus – is it present in South Africa?

In July 2006, a case of two out of three lambs born to one ewe in a flock of 45 had signs that, in retrospect, were possibly consistent with Schmallenberg virus infection. This occurred in the Onderstepoort area (Gauteng Province) but a definitive diagnosis was not made. Then, in May 2008, a farmer in the Delmas area (Mpumalanga Province) reported that deformed lambs had been born to several ewes in the flock. Six of the approximately 50 mated ewes gave birth to lambs showing varying degrees of arthrogryposis, torticollis, kyphosis, mandibular brachygnathia and hydrocephalus. Of these, only two were born alive but they died within a few hours. Blood was collected from the ewes with deformed lambs, a random sample of ewes that had given birth to normal lambs and a lamb that was normal but had a twin that was deformed. The samples were tested for Wesselsbron and Akabane antibodies using a complement fixation test and a haemagglutination/haemagglutination inhibition test that were available at that time. Bluetongue virus antibodies were also tested for using a commercial Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. All samples showed negative results for all diseases tested. At the time Rift Valley fever virus had not been diagnosed in that region for many years and so it was not included in the testing. It is unlikely that this was the cause as no liver pathology was detected on postmortem examination of the lambs and no adult ewes had died. The farmer reported that another farm just a few kilometres away experienced the same deformities in some of their lambs but this farm was not investigated. During investigation it was thought that the cause was possibly a new strain of Akabane virus, although there was no way to confirm it. However, with the recent discovery of the Schmallenberg virus, it is possible that this virus has been present in South Africa for at least the last four years without being identified.A.M.B. (University of Pretoria) gathered information and references on the Schmallenberg virus. G.F.B. (University of Pretoria) assisted with editing and providing some references. R.L. (University of Pretoria) wrote the manuscript and contributed to gathering information and references.The authors would like to acknowledge Dr Truuske Gerdes for her contributions to the initial investigation on the Delmas farm in May 2008.http://www.jsava.co.zaam2013ab201

A questionnaire survey on diseases and problems affecting sheep and goats in communal farming regions of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa

A questionnaire of 15 questions was completed by four categories of respondents with the aim of establishing the experience and opinions of these groups on the constraints including animal health problems for communal, small-scale sheep and goat farming in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The questionnaires were completed independently and categories were representative of the areas investigated. Analysis of responses was done by means, ranges, votes and clusters of responses. Comparisons between the responses of the four categories were made to identify similarities or contrasts. The results revealed that of non-veterinary concerns, stock theft was the major problem for these farms. Nutrition was a further major constraint. A third area of significant concern was the provision or availability of facilities like fences, water troughs, dips and sheds. Lack of marketing and business skills were also seen as important deficiencies to be rectified so as to promote profitable farming. Of the most important veterinary problems identified, the provision, availability, cost and care of drugs and vaccines were seen as major stumbling blocks to effective disease control, as well as lack of access to veterinary services. The most important diseases that constrain small-ruminant livestock farming in the farming systems investigated were sheep scab and other ectoparasites, heart water, enterotoxaemia, internal parasites and bluetongue. A lack of knowledge in key areas of small-stock farming was revealed and should be rectified by an effective training and support programme to improve the contribution of small-ruminant farming to livelihoods in these communities.The Wellcome Foundationhttp://www.jsava.co.zaam2016Production Animal StudiesVeterinary Tropical Disease

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis associated with otitis media-interna in goats

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis or caseous lymphadenitis is a common condition in sheep and goats. Two cases are described involving otitis media-interna and, in one case, cerebellar abscessation. The first case began with otitis externa and progressed to cerebellar abscessation, presumably as a result of C. pseudotuberculosis infection based on the macroscopic appearance of the abscess. The second case of otitis media-interna involved C. pseudotuberculosis with parasitic encephalitis or secondary meningo-encephalitis. Caseous lymphadenitis is a worldwide problem in livestock and also has zoonotic implications. Antimicrobial therapy of abscesses is often unrewarding due to the thick encapsulation of the abscesses and the extremely contagious nature of the organism. Alternative measures of treating this condition must be sought. In flocks or herds where caseous lymphadenitis has been diagnosed, it should be considered as a differential diagnosis for neurological conditions. The potential for spread must be kept in mind when it is suspected to be the cause of otitis in livestock.http://www.jsava.co.zaam2013ab201

An afebrile heartwater-like syndrome in goats

Heartwater is a serious limiting factor for sheep and goat production in the major endemic area of sub-Saharan Africa and therefore most knowledge, research and control methods originate from this region. Whilst the usual or common clinical presentations can be used to make a presumptive diagnosis of heartwater with a good measure of confidence, this is not always the case, and animals suffering from heartwater may be misdiagnosed because their cases do not conform to the expected syndrome, signs and lesions. One aberrant form found occasionally in the Channel Island breeds of cattle and some goats is an afebrile heartwaterlike syndrome. The most constant and characteristic features of this heartwater-like syndrome comprise normal temperature, clinical signs associated with generalised oedema, and nervous signs, especially hypersensitivity. The presumption that the disease under investigation is the afebrile heartwater-like syndrome entails a tentative diagnosis based on history and clinical signs and the response to presumed appropriate treatment (metadiagnosis). The afebrile heartwater-like syndrome presents similarly to peracute heartwater but without the febrile reaction. Peracute cases of heartwater have a high mortality rate, enabling confirmation of the disease on post-mortem examination. Recognition of the afebrile heartwater-like syndrome is important to prevent deaths and identify the need for appropriate control measures.The Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria.http://www.jsava.co.zaam2014ab201

The impact of practical experience on theoretical knowledge at different cognitive levels

Although theoretical training of veterinary students is uncomplicated even for larger groups, practical training remains a challenge. Much has been said about the value of practical training in curriculum design. Yet, the impact of practical training on theoretical knowledge needs further research. A cohort of 89 students with very limited clinical practical experience completed an assessment at the end of their theoretical training in small ruminants. The scores obtained by the students were compared with those obtained by a group of 35 veterinarians who volunteered to participate in the study. In addition to comparing the scores between students and practitioners, the cognitive level of each of the questions was considered. Overall, veterinarians achieved higher test scores than did the students. The veterinarians outperformed the students in all cognitive levels except for ‘applying’ type questions where there was no difference. Different levels of experience, namely young veterinarians (n = 11), established veterinarians (n = 13) and veterinarians approaching retirement (n = 11), were evaluated against the revised Bloom’s cognitive levels. When modelling congress attendance frequency, years’ experience, proportion of time spent with ruminants and revised Bloom’s levels, congress attendance was not a significant variable, and thus, only the other three variables remained. This investigation found that practical experience has a positive effect on theoretical knowledge. The type of practical experience and where such practical experience is included in a curriculum need further research. Working for a number of years in a specific discipline will provide the best support for theoretical knowledge.The University of Pretoria, Vice Chancellor’s Granthttp://www.jsava.co.zaam2020Production Animal StudiesStatistic