Loss of Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus (CAEV) Herd Accreditation: Characteristics, Diagnostic Approach, and Specific Follow-Up Scenarios on Large Dairy Goat Farms

The retrovirus causing caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE), a slowly progressive inflammatory disease in goats, belongs to the group of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) which cause lifelong infections that ought to be avoided for animal welfare as well as economic reasons. SRLV accreditation has been in place for forty years in The Netherlands and is based on the screening of small ruminant sera for specific antibodies. This paper evaluates 38 dairy goat herds that lost CAEV accreditation between 2012 and 2022. The characteristics of these herds are discussed, and specific follow-up scenarios, depending on desired goals, are introduced. The herd size of the participating herds varies from approximately 400 to 4600 adult dairy goats. The larger herds tended to be more prone to lose herd accreditation and had more difficulties regaining accreditation. Possible routes of introduction are lined up. The Royal GD’s tailor-made approach and advice to support livestock farmers with herds that have lost CAE accreditation are discussed in detail. Specific emphasis is placed on the strategic deployment of various diagnostic tests (such as antibody ELISAs and PCR) in different media, such as (pooled) sera, (bulk)milk and tissue samples. Special attention is paid to the added value of retrospective bulk milk testing or the specific testing of groups based on housing and management, which enables the investigation of the moment of viral introduction and route of transmission into a herd. Furthermore, the prospective implementation of bulk milk and strategic pooled milk sample testing in the Dutch SRLV accreditation programs intensifies surveillance and enables the taking of swift action to prevent further transmission within and between herds. An appeal is made to share experiences to improve programs collectively, and to start research into the underlying mechanisms

An Accessible Diagnostic Toolbox to Detect Bacterial Causes of Ovine and Caprine Abortion

Results of laboratory investigations of ovine and caprine cases of abortion in the lambing season 2015–2016 were analyzed, using pathology records of submissions to Royal GD (Deventer, the Netherlands) from January until and including April 2016, in comparison with the results of two accessible alternative techniques for sampling aborted lambs and kids, swabbing the fetal oropharynx and puncture of the fetal lung. Chlamydia abortus was the main cause of abortion in sheep as well as in goats. Other causes of abortion were Campylobacter spp., Listeria spp., Escherichia coli, and Yersinia enterocolitica. Ovine pathological submissions resulted more often in detecting an infectious agent compared to caprine submissions. For the three main bacterial causes of abortion, Campylobacter spp., Listeria spp., and Chlamydia spp., compared to results of the pathological examination, oropharynx mucus, and fetal lung puncture samples showed an observed agreement of 0.87 and 0.89, an expected agreement of 0.579 and 0.584, and a kappa value of 0.691 and 0.737 (95% CI: 0.561–0.82 and 0.614–0.859), respectively. The agreement between the results of the pathological examination and both fetal lung puncture and oropharynx mucus samples was classified as good. In conclusion, although a full step-wise post-mortem examination remains the most proper way of investigating small ruminant abortions, the easily accessible, low-threshold tools for practitioners and farmers as described in this paper not only provide reliable results compared to results of the post-mortem examination but also stimulates farmers and veterinarians to submit fetuses and placentas if necessary. Suggestions for further improvement of both alternatives have been summarized. Both alternatives could also be tailor-made for specific regions with their specific causes of abortion

Seroepidemiological survey for Coxiella burnetii antibodies and associated risk factors in Dutch livestock veterinarians.

Since 2007, Q fever has become a major public health problem in the Netherlands and goats were the most likely source of the human outbreaks in 2007, 2008 and 2009. Little was known about the consequences of these outbreaks for those professional care providers directly involved. The aim of this survey was to estimate the seroprevalence of antibodies against C. burnetii among Dutch livestock veterinarians and to determine possible risk factors. Single blood samples from 189 veterinarians, including veterinary students in their final year, were collected at a veterinary conference and a questionnaire was filled in by each participant. The blood samples were screened for IgG antibodies against phase I and phase II antigen of C. burnetii using an indirect immunofluorescent assay, and for IgM antibodies using an ELISA. Antibodies against C. burnetii were detected in 123 (65.1%) out of 189 veterinarians. Independent risk factors associated with seropositivity were number of hours with animal contact per week, number of years graduated as veterinarian, rural or sub urban living area, being a practicing veterinarian, and occupational contact with swine. Livestock veterinarians should be aware of this risk to acquire an infection with C. burnetii. Physicians should consider potential infection with C. burnetii when treating occupational risk groups, bearing in mind that the burden of disease among veterinarians remains uncertain. Vaccination of occupational risk groups should be debated

Estimation of the use of antibiotics in the small ruminant industry in The Netherlands in 2011 and 2012.

The aim of this study was to estimate the quantity of antibiotics and classes of antibiotics used in the small ruminant industry in the Netherlands in 2011 and 2012. Twelve large veterinary practices, located throughout the Netherlands were selected for this study. All small ruminant farms associated with these practices that had complete records on the quantity of antibiotics prescribed were included. The veterinary practices provided data on all antibiotics prescribed, and the estimated animal used daily dose of antibiotics per year (AUDD/Y) was calculated for each farm. The median AUDD/Y in small ruminant farms was zero in both years (mean 0.60 in 2011, and 0.62 in 2012). The largest quantity of antibiotic use was observed in the professional goat industry (herds of ≥32 goats) with a median AUDD/Y of 1.22 in 2011 and 0.73 in 2012. In the professional sheep industry (flocks of ≥32 sheep), the median AUDD/Y was 0 in 2011 and 0.10 in 2012. In the small scale industry (flocks or herds of <32 sheep or goats), the median AUDD/Y never exceeded 0. The most frequently prescribed antibiotics in the small scale industry and professional sheep farms belonged to the penicillin class. In professional goat farms, antibiotics of the aminoglycoside class were most frequently prescribed. This study provides the first assessment on the quantity of antibiotic use in the small ruminant industry. Given a comparable attitude towards antibiotic use, these results might be valid for small ruminant populations in other north-western European countries as well. The antibiotic use in the small ruminant industry appeared to be low, and is expected to play a minor role in the development of antibiotic resistance. Nevertheless, several major zoonotic bacterial pathogens are associated with the small ruminant industry, and it remains important that antibiotics are used in a prudent way

Dairy Sheep Played a Minor Role in the 2005&ndash;2010 Human Q Fever Outbreak in The Netherlands Compared to Dairy Goats

Q fever is an almost ubiquitous zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii. This organism infects several animal species, as well as humans, and domestic ruminants like cattle, sheep and goats are an important animal reservoir of C. burnetii. In 2007, a sudden rise in notified human Q fever cases occurred in The Netherlands, and by the end of 2009, more than 3500 human Q fever patients had been notified. Dairy sheep and dairy goats were suspected to play a causal role in this human Q fever outbreak, and several measures were taken, aiming at a reduction of C. burnetii shedding by infected small ruminants, in order to reduce environmental contamination and thus human exposure. One of the first measures was compulsory notification of more than five percent abortion within thirty days for dairy sheep and dairy goat farms, starting 12 June 2008. After notification, an official farm inspection took place, and laboratory investigations were performed aiming at ruling out or demonstrating a causal role of C. burnetii. These measures were effective, and the number of human Q fever cases decreased; levels are currently the same as they were prior to 2007. The effect of these measures was monitored using a bulk tank milk (BTM) PCR and an antibody ELISA. The percentage PCR positive dairy herds and flocks decreased over time, and dairy sheep flocks tested PCR positive significantly less often and became PCR negative earlier compared to dairy goat herds. Although there was no difference in the percentage of dairy goat and dairy sheep farms with a C. burnetii abortion outbreak, the total number of shedding dairy sheep was much lower than the number of shedding dairy goats. Combined with the fact that Q fever patients lived mainly in the proximity of infected dairy goat farms and that no Q fever patients could be linked directly to dairy sheep farms, although this may have happened in individual cases, we conclude that dairy sheep did not play a major role in the Dutch Q fever outbreak. BTM monitoring using both a PCR and an ELISA is essential to determine a potential C. burnetii risk, not only for The Netherlands but for other countries with small ruminant dairy industries

Perspectives for Buck Kids in Dairy Goat Farming

To start milk production, dairy goats need to give birth at least once. While most female kids are reared to become the next generation of dairy goats, only a small proportion of male kids (buck kids) are reared with reproduction aims. The market for buck kid meat, especially within Northern European countries, is currently relatively small compared to the number of bucks born. Therefore, the purposes for buck kids are limited and a substantial proportion of buck kid meat is used for pet food. Due to the limited economic value of buck kids, farmers are faced with a dilemma. Although raising bucks costs more money than it yields, the birth of kids is a prerequisite for production of milk and should be seen as an investment for business-wise healthy dairy goat farming. In that perspective, dairy goat farmers have an ethical responsibility toward buck kids, as well. In this paper, we compare various scenarios of dealing with the issue of surplus male animals. We provide recommendations for the rearing of buck kids based on the sector's experience and current practice in the Netherlands. Reducing the number of surplus (male) offspring, e.g., by an optimized prolonged lactation management and/or by artificial insemination with sex-sorted semen, could alleviate the issue of low value buck kids. Killing surplus animals before or directly after birth, on the other hand, is met with increasing societal scrutiny. Initiatives to propagate a market for buck kid meat for human consumption are important to enable a suitable and sustainable production system. To maintain the health and welfare of goat kids, amongst other factors, sufficient and good quality colostrum, milk, and an appropriate diet as they grow older, needs to be provided. One option to assure the safeguarding of health and welfare of all goat kids are quality assurance schemes for milk production. These schemes make dairy farmers accountable for the health and welfare of all kids in the rearing period, including the provision of colostrum and adequate care for newborn buck kids. We conclude that the combination of reducing the number of surplus kids, increasing the demand for goat products, and quality assurance schemes that may help to safeguard the welfare of buck kids

Incidence, possible risk factors and therapies for pseudopregnancy on Dutch dairy goat farms : a cross-sectional study

Pseudopregnancy is a frequently diagnosed reproductive disorder in (dairy) goats. This cross-sectional study evaluates the incidence, possible risk factors and therapies for pseudopregnancy on Dutch dairy goat farms. Two questionnaires, one for farmers and one for veterinarians, were designed and included questions about general farm demographics, breeding management, hormonal oestrous induction, treatment, measures for reduction and stress moments in dairy goats in the period June 1, 2016-May 31, 2017. In total, 43 farmers (21.5 per cent response rate) and 27 veterinarians (22.5 per cent response rate) completed the questionnaire. The annual incidence of pseudopregnancy varied between 1 and 54 per cent per farm, with a mean annual incidence of 17 per cent (95 per cent CI 0.14 to 0.21). In this study, we found a significant association between incidence of pseudopregnancy and a higher percentage of goats with an extended lactation (p<0.0001) and between incidence of pseudopregnancy and the number of ultrasound examinations per year (p<0.0001). The recommended therapy in literature consists of two administrations of prostaglandins. This was only correctly applied by 10 per cent of the farms. On 52 per cent of the farms, an overdose was used comparing to the recommended dose in literature

Incidence, possible risk factors and therapies for pseudopregnancy on Dutch dairy goat farms : a cross-sectional study

Pseudopregnancy is a frequently diagnosed reproductive disorder in (dairy) goats. This cross-sectional study evaluates the incidence, possible risk factors and therapies for pseudopregnancy on Dutch dairy goat farms. Two questionnaires, one for farmers and one for veterinarians, were designed and included questions about general farm demographics, breeding management, hormonal oestrous induction, treatment, measures for reduction and stress moments in dairy goats in the period June 1, 2016-May 31, 2017. In total, 43 farmers (21.5 per cent response rate) and 27 veterinarians (22.5 per cent response rate) completed the questionnaire. The annual incidence of pseudopregnancy varied between 1 and 54 per cent per farm, with a mean annual incidence of 17 per cent (95 per cent CI 0.14 to 0.21). In this study, we found a significant association between incidence of pseudopregnancy and a higher percentage of goats with an extended lactation (p<0.0001) and between incidence of pseudopregnancy and the number of ultrasound examinations per year (p<0.0001). The recommended therapy in literature consists of two administrations of prostaglandins. This was only correctly applied by 10 per cent of the farms. On 52 per cent of the farms, an overdose was used comparing to the recommended dose in literature