Processing modifier-head agreement in long Finnish words: Evidence from eye movements

The present study investigates whether processing of an inflected Finnish noun is facilitated when preceded by a modifier in the same case ending. In Finnish, modifiers agree with their head nouns both in case and in number and the agreement is expressed by means of suffixes (e.g., vanha/ssa talo/ssa ‘old/in house/in’ → ‘in the old house’). Vainio et al. (2003; 2008) showed processing benefits for this kind of modifier-head agreement, when the head nouns were relatively short. However, the effect showed up relatively late in the processing stream, such that word n + 1, the word following the target noun talo/ssa, was read faster when it was preceded by an agreeing modifier (vanha/ssa) than when no modifier was present. This led Vainio et al. to the conclusion that agreement exerts its effect at a later stage, namely at the level of syntactic integration and not at the level of lexical access. The current study investigates whether the same holds when head nouns are considerably longer (e.g., kaupungin/talo/ssa ‘city house/in’ → ‘in the city hall’). Our results show that the effect of agreement is facilitative in case of longer head nouns as well, but—in contrast to what was found for shorter words—the effect not only appeared late, but was also observed in earlier processing measures. It thus seems that, in processing long words, benefits related to modifier-head agreement are not confined to post-lexical syntactic integration processes, but extend to lexical identification of the head

The English disease in Finnish compound processing: Backward transfer effects in Finnish-English bilinguals

Most English compounds are spaced compounds, whereas spelling regulations prescribe Finnish compounds to be written in a concatenated format. However, as in English, Finnish compounds are commonly spaced nowadays (e.g., piha juhla ‘garden party’), a phenomenon that we labeled the ‘English disease’. In this eye movement study with Finnish–English bilinguals we investigate whether the reading of a concatenated or illegally spaced Finnish compound is affected by the spelling of an English translation equivalent (ETE). We found that spaced Finnish compounds were read slower than their concatenated counterparts, but this effect was attenuated when ETEs were thought to be spaced. Similarly, concatenated Finnish compounds were read faster when their ETEs were also concatenated. These backward transfer effects are in line with studies that show that processing behavior in L1 is affected by a strong concurrent L2, even when the L1 is the native language as well as the dominant community language</p

Knowledge is a river and education is like a stairway: An eye movement study on how L2 speakers process metaphors and similes

Very little is known about the processes underlying second language (L2) speakers’ understanding of written metaphors and similes. Moreover, most of the theories on figurative language comprehension do not consider reader-related factors. In the study, we used eye-tracking to examine how native Finnish speakers (N = 63) read written English nominal metaphors (“education is a stairway”) and similes (“education is like a stairway”). Identical topic–vehicle pairs were used in both conditions. After reading, participants evaluated familiarity of each pair. English proficiency was measured using the Bilingual-language Profile Questionnaire and the Lexical Test for Advanced Learners of English. The results showed that readers were more likely to regress within metaphors than within similes, indicating that processing metaphors requires more processing effort than processing similes. The familiarity of a metaphor and L2 English proficiency modulated this effect. The results are discussed in the light of current theories on figurative language processing.</p

PRIMER REGISTRO DE NIDO Y ASPECTOS SOBRE LA BIOLOGÍA REPRODUCTIVA DEL ZAMARRITO PECHINEGRO Eriocnemis nigrivestis (APODIFORMES: TROCHILIDAE)

El Zamarrito Pechinegro&nbsp;Eriocnemis nigrivestis&nbsp;es una especie endémica del Ecuador, calificada como En Peligro Crítico de extinción. Se distribuye entre 2850 y 3500 m de altitud en el bosque siempreverde montano alto de las provincias de Pichincha e Imbabura. Se han realizado varios estudios sobre la especie, en particular de su dieta, pero todavía no se conoce su biología reproductiva. El presente trabajo se realizó en la reserva Verdecocha, en las estribaciones noroccidentales del volcán Pichincha, entre 2008–2016. Encontramos que el periodo reproductivo de&nbsp;E. nigrivestis&nbsp;se desarrolló entre noviembre y abril, periodo en el cual los machos establecieron territorios y realizaron maniobras de cortejo, y las hembras construyeron sus nidos y cuidaron de la prole. Además, encontramos un marcado dimorfismo sexual en juveniles de una misma nidada, un patrón poco conocido para el género&nbsp;Eriocnemis. Conocer sobre la biología reproductiva de&nbsp;E. nigrivestis&nbsp;nos permite inferir sobre los requerimientos de hábitat de la especie e inferir los factores bióticos y abióticos que moldean su ciclo reproductivo. Esta información es útil para entender sus relaciones ecológicas y evolutivas, y para diseñar políticas de manejo eficientes que faciliten la conservación de su hábitat. Palabras clave:dimorfismo sexual,&nbsp;Eriocnemis nigrivestis,&nbsp;nido, Pichincha, reproducción. &nbsp; First nesting record and notes on the breeding biology of Black-breasted Puffleg&nbsp;Eriocnemis nigrivestis&nbsp;(Apodiformes: Trochilidae) &nbsp;Abstract Black-breasted Puffleg&nbsp;Eriocnemis nigrivestis&nbsp;is endemic to Ecuador and currently classified as Critically Endangered. It ranges between 2850–3500 m elevation, in the montane&nbsp;forests&nbsp;in the provinces of Pichincha and Imbabura. The is an important amount of research about the species feeding ecology, but its breeding biology remains unknown. This study was carried out in Verdecocha Reserve, in the northwestern slopes of Pichincha volcano, in 2008–2016. We found that the breeding season of&nbsp;E. nigrivestis&nbsp;was between November and April, when males established territories and performed courtship displays, and females build nest and raised offspring. We observed sexual dimorphism in juveniles of the same clutch, a pattern little known for the genus&nbsp;Eriocnemis. Information about the breeding biology of&nbsp;E. nigrivestis&nbsp;allows us to understand its habitat requirements and to infer biotic and abiotic factors the can shape its breeding cycle. This information is useful to understand its ecological and evolutionary relationships, as well as to design efficient management policies for the conservation of its habitat. &nbsp;Keywords:breeding behavior,&nbsp;Eriocnemis nigrivestis,&nbsp;nest,Pichincha, sexual dimorphism

Lexize: A test to quickly assess vocabulary knowledge in Finnish

Proficiency in a language is strongly related to how well and how many words one knows. Vocabulary knowledge correlates with reading comprehension and general communication ability. Due to the increasing amount of research within the field of psycholinguistics and second language acquisition in Finnish, a standardized test to objectively measure Finnish vocabulary knowledge is called for. Lexize is such a test. It was modeled after LexTALE (Lemhofer & Broersma, Behaviour Research Methods, 44:325-343, 2012), which was developed to measure vocabulary knowledge of English as a second language using visual lexical decision (VLD). Lexize is a VLD-based online test for Finnish that consists of 102 items. By comparing performance of L1 and L2 speakers of Finnish, Lexize was validated, returning considerable differences between test scores in native and non-native speakers. For non-native speakers there was a large range of test scores, correlating strongly with exposure to Finnish and self-ratings. In native speakers, test scores correlated with self-ratings, Finnish school grades, and age. In this group, higher Lexize scores were associated with a higher education level. We conclude that Lexize is a useful tool to assess Finnish vocabulary knowledge for non-native speakers and to some extent for native speakers. Lexize is available for free use at

Cost-effectiveness thresholds : pros and cons

Cost-effectiveness analysis is used to compare the costs and outcomes of alternative policy options. Each resulting cost-effectiveness ratio represents the magnitude of additional health gained per additional unit of resources spent. Cost-effectiveness thresholds allow cost-effectiveness ratios that represent good or very good value for money to be identified. In 2001, the World Health Organization’s Commission on Macroeconomics in Health suggested cost-effectiveness thresholds based on multiples of a country’s per-capita gross domestic product (GDP). In some contexts, in choosing which health interventions to fund and which not to fund, these thresholds have been used as decision rules. However, experience with the use of such GDP-based thresholds in decision-making processes at country level shows them to lack country specificity and this-in addition to uncertainty in the modelled cost-effectiveness ratios-can lead to the wrong decision on how to spend health-care resources. Cost-effectiveness information should be used alongside other considerations-e.g. budget impact and feasibility considerations-in a transparent decision-making process, rather than in isolation based on a single threshold value. Although cost-effectiveness ratios are undoubtedly informative in assessing value for money, countries should be encouraged to develop a context-specific process for decision-making that is supported by legislation, has stakeholder buy-in, for example the involvement of civil society organizations and patient groups, and is transparent, consistent and fair

Pulmonary neuroendocrine (carcinoid) tumors: European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society expert consensus and recommendations for best practice for typical and atypical pulmonary carcinoids

This is an expert consensus from the European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society recommending best practice for the management of pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors including typical and atypical carcinoids. It emphasizes the latest discussion on nomenclature, advances and utility of new diagnostic techniques as well as the limited evidence and difficulties in determining the optimal therapeutic strateg