The Status of Climate Change Vulnerability and Resilience in Jaffna Peninsula

Sri Lanka’s average annual temperature could rise by 1.0o C to 1.5o C by 2050 even if carbon emission reduction measures are taken as recommended by the Paris Agreement of 2015. Approximately 19 million people live in locations that could become moderate or severe hotspots by 2050 under the carbon-intensive scenario. Several provinces in the country including the Northern Province emerge as hotspots for climate change vulnerability. This paper analyses the resilient capacity of Jaffna Province to climate change challenges. Secondary information taken from government sources supplemented by observations of the researcher are used for this analysis. Jaffna is one of the 25 districts of Sri Lanka and located in the far north of the country in the Northern Province. It has an area of 1,025 square kilometers. The climate is considered to be tropical monsoonal with a seasonal rhythm of rainfall. The temperature ranges from 26o C to 33o C. Annual precipitation ranges from 696 mm to 1,125 mm. The north east monsoon rain (October to January) accounts for more than 90% of the annual rainfall. The peninsula is mostly surrounded by water, connected to the rest of the island by a small strip of land. Its underground water is used for drinking, agriculture and industry. Paddy cultivation is rain fed but only for three months during the North East monsoon period. The unique geomorphological set up in Jaffna peninsula area is characterised by the underlain Miocene limestone formations which are generally 100 to 150 m thick and distinctly bedded, well jointed and highly karstified, thus giving rise to the shallow aquifer of the peninsula which consists of the channels and cavities (karsts) of this Miocene Limestone. The total population of the district is around 600,000. Agriculture and fisheries have been the principal economic activities of the district. Over 60% of the work force in the district depends on agriculture for their livelihood. About 86,000 families are engaged in agriculture while 15,000 families engage in fishing. Agriculture in the district contributes substantially to the GNP of the country. The average land holding area is around 0.5 to 0.75 acres (3,000 m2). Unemployment in the rural areas is 27.9% while in the urban area it is 25.8%. From the meteorological records from 2008 to 2018, it is shown that the annual average rainfall shows a decline from 2015 onwards although a peak of 1800 mm was shown in 2015 causing severe floods in the entire Peninsula (2,247,225 cum). The average annual temperature also showed a peak in 2016 and then showed a declining trend thereafter. The minimum temperature also showed a similar pattern having a peak in 2016 and then a declining thereafter. According to the climate predictions in 2080, Jaffna Peninsula will have an average annual temperature increase between 4.10o C to 4.50o C under very severe climate change scenario. Similarly the change of rainfall will be 0.1% to 20.0% in 2080 (Punyawardene, 2013). The thin fresh water lens over the saline water makes the Peninsula very vulnerable by way of water quality as salt water intrusion can happen if not careful. Already there is a threat from over extraction of water from the tube wells with the influx of population after the war. The existing storm water drainage system in the Jaffna Municipal Council (JMC) is functioning sub optimally due to non maintenance and irrational behaviors of inhabitants who use the drains and ponds as dumping channels of solid waste and waste water. This reduces the ground water recharge which will reduce the fresh water further. In addition to this, due to the discharges of industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents, the water is polluted. The relatively high percentage of families with low incomes (below 5,000 per month), small and medium scale commercial entities show poor environmental consciousness. Poor law enforcement and institutional capacity of the institutions especially JMC makes matters worse thus causing the Peninsula very vulnerable to climate change related disasters. Keywords: Jaffna Peninsula, Climate change, Vulnerability, Resilience, JM

From Second National Communication to Third National Communication for the UNFCCC: Sri Lanka’s Progress

Sri Lanka is a signatory country to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and therefore is expected to provide information on greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories, measures to mitigate and to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change, and any other information that the party considers relevant to the achievement of the objective of the Convention.Sri Lanka is now in the preparation of the 3rd National Communication. This paper attempts to review the status of the implementation of the recommendations provided by the Second National Communication (submitted in 2010) in the area of Green House Gas mitigation in the backdrop of the expectations of the Third National Communication. The targets of Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) were also considered in this context. The sectors dealt with here are power, transport, industries, agriculture, land use, land use change and forestry and waste. In general considerable action had been taken towards implementation of the recommendations put forward by the Second National Communication (2NC). However more work needs to be done to fulfil the expectations fully. With regards to the power sector, despite the expectation of the INDCs to provide 50% of the energy demand from Non-Conventional Renewable Energies (NCRE) by 2030, the Long Term Generation and Expansion Plan of the Ceylon Electricity Board envisages only 26.27% from NCRE by 2034 while the contribution from coal increased to 56.91%. The recommendation of 2NC to introduce natural gas as an alternative for base load generation has not materialized. With regards to the transportation sector which emits about 50% of carbon dioxide, there had been certain policy directions towards ensuring sustainable transport modes but the progress is rather slow. Some strategies and action plans in this regard are National Transport Master Plan, Road Sector Master Plan and Western Megapolis Action Plan which collectively aims at enhancing the use of public transport of higher quality and encourage its use while constructing and maintaining high quality transport modes including road and rail. Clean Air 2025 and Blue Green Era directives also accentuates these intentions. Greening the industries remain largely voluntary. The Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment has introduced two very important tools; National Green Reporting System (2011) and Green Procurement Policy (2015). The Blue Green Era Policy advocates green infrastructure and green industries. In the area of agriculture, National Agriculture Policy Framework and National Food Production Programme (2016-18) identifies the requirement of production of safe food by promoting eco-friendly practices and minimizing agro chemicals and pesticides in food crop production. The policy on toxin free country also is in agreement to this. With regards to the land use, land use change and forestry, the major attempt is the production of the National REDD+ Investment Framework and Action Plan in 2017. It encompassed three policy areas; forest, wildlife and watersheds, land use planning and other forested lands. In the waste sector, while National Policy on Solid Waste Management (2007) and Pilisaru Project are struggling to achieve their objectives, plans are underway to form a single waste management authority for the country and also introduce instruments such as Polluter Pay, producer Responsible etc. to minimize the pollution from waste streams. A Waste Management Plan for target provinces had been prepared by the Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment with the assistance of UN HABITAT in 2017. There is some interest in waste to energy projects.Keywords: National communication, Transport, Waste, Forests, Recommendations, Powe

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF MORAGAHAKA,NDA DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

The Moragahakanda Development Project is an integral component of the 30-year Master planfor the Mahaweli Development Programme and is the last of the reservoirs to be developed.The project comprise of many components; a 63 m high dam and two smaller saddle dams atMoragahakanda forming a reservoir with full supply level (FSL) of 185 m msl and area of 29.5km2, a 20 MW base power plant incorporated in the dam with a 132 KV transmission line toHabarana, a second diversion tunnel from Bowatenna to Lenadora with 25 m3/s capacityaccompanied by improvement of the Huruluwewa Feeder Canal, a branch extension of theUpper Left Bank Canal of the Kariudulla Irrigation Scheme in System Dl to accommodatearound 1000 families who would be displaced by the Project.This paper attempts to review the principle environmental impacts of the proposed project,especially in upstream catchment, reservoir area and the dam, power plant, downstream riverand irrigation and settlements. Effects on the environment in the construction phase andoperational phase also were taker. separately. An environmental management plan had beendesigned covering all the project components and mitigation measures in the upstream riverbasin, reservoir area and dam site, downstream river and irrigation areas.

Greening the Highways – Road Way Design That Integrates Transportation Functionality and Ecological Sustainability – Case Study of Port to Port Expressway in Hambantota District

The weight of the road transport sector within an economy is considerable, not only inquantitative terms (tons transported), but also in economic terms such as source of wealth,employment and in terms of support given to other economic activities. Through numerousmechanisms, investments in the road sector benefit the whole society by providing access toterritory and allowing poverty alleviation to take place. Consequently, the road networkcreates and stimulates positive synergy and enhances social cohesion and integration bygiving citizens access to the same opportunities. However, in as much as it provides the aforesaid benefits, if not done holistically without giving proper heed to the environment andnatural resources, it poses many negative impacts. Some of them are bifurcating landscapesand societies and calling for involuntary resettlement, impediment on natural hydrology,noise pollution, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality; and thewider effects including climate change from vehicle emissions. The design, construction andmanagement of roads can change the impacts to varying degrees.A green highway is a roadway constructed with a relatively new concept for roadway designthat integrates transportation functionality and ecological sustainability. An environmentalapproach is used throughout the planning, design, and the construction. The result is ahighway that will benefit transportation, the ecosystem, urban growth, public health andsurrounding communities. In order to achieve this developer should go beyond the minimumstandards set by environmental laws and regulations. First of all it is required to map all theresources in the area in order to avoid, identify and protect critical resource areas. Naturaldrainage paths need to be protected and restored to protect the hydrology of wetlands andstreams in project area. The disruptions to ecological processes should be reduced bypromoting wildlife corridors and passages in areas identified through wildlife conservationplans. Examples are taken for the illustration of the above from the recently designedexpressway to link the Seaport with the Airport and the Southern Expressway in HambantotaDistrict

FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF WOODY PERENNIALS IN THE HAKGALA STRICT NATURE RESERVE

Sampling by the "gradsect " method found that there were 88 Woody plant species belonging to 65 genera and 36families. The trees were of six fantilics:Lauraceae, Theaceae. Symplocaceae, Myrtaceae, Elaeocarpaceae andRubiaceae. There was no evidence (!l single species dominance in trees. No major tree communities were observed at the lower elevations. but near the peak there is a community at canopy level ol Syzygium umbrosum. Eugeniamabaeoides, and Callophyllum walkeri. There are four dominant species (?lsaplings: Psychotria zevlanica, P. nigra. Maesa perrottetiana, and Lasianthcsoliganthes. of which P. zeylanica appears sometimes to be a dominant singlespecies. The dominant [antilles among the saplings are the Rubiaceae andMyrsinaccae, while the seedlings are dominated by Rubiaceae. Biologicaldiversify is high. and endemism was put at -1-/% ol the total species enumerated.It is an ecologically critical area, which includes 2 endangered species, 2vulnerable, 7 rare, and'; intermediate. This nature reserve, therefore, has ahigh conservation value. Its small size and isolation may jeopardize its longtermviability ifmeasures are not takenfor its complete protection

HABITAT UTILIZATION PATTERN OF Lantana camara IN UDAWAlAWA NATIONAL PARK

Time to time, many plant species has been introduced to Sri Lanka either intentionally oraccidentally. However, with the present interest on biodiversity it was realized that some of thesespecies are posing a threat to the existence of many other native species. These species areknown as invasive species.Lantana camara an invasive plant is introduced to Sri Lanka in 1926 through the Royal BotanicGardens of Sri Lanka and currently has spread across the island to a significant extent. Now ithas become invasive and a threat to the Udawalawe National Park.Further more, growth of this species in Udawalawe NP at an alarming rate would eliminate thenatural vegetation in this area, causing loss of habitat for many animal and plant speciesendangering their survival. To effective manage and control L. camara in Udawalawa NP, it isnecessary to have knowledge of the distribution within this park and asses the invasivebehaviour of this species.Main objectives of this research study were to find the extent and distribution. This study wasconducted in purposely-selected vegetation types such as degraded open secondary forest, scrubgrasslands, medium high scrub vegetation, scrub forest transitional vegetation and teakplantation. The percentage coverage was assessed using 2mx2m quadrats. In each quadrate %cover of reproductives and non-renroductives of L. camara were measured. Seed samples weregerminated in the lab using soil collected from the natural habitat. The study had shown thatwithin the Udawalawa NP, the L. camara cover affects some vegetation types such as degradedopen secondary forest, scrub grass lands, medium high scrub vegetation, scrub forest transitionalvegetation and teak plantation. The plant is capable of producing a large number of seeds and itis spreading fast. The seeds showed high capability of direct germination. Total area ofUdawalawa NP is 30821 hectares and the area, which consists of L. camara, is 20%, spread intoabove vegetation types covering Udawalawa NP. The distribution pattern of the species showedthat the area around the main road the main road and VeheragoIla, Seenuggala, Mauara,Thimbiriyamankada and 5th milepost are the most densely and continuously distributed areas.Except this, there are few isolated patches on either side of the road and some vegetation types.It was interesting to note that the density of the L. camara is high in open areas than naturalforest areas.As for control methods, uprooting and burning was tested for plants with different cover.Uprooting of small plants was effective than mature plants. Mature plants regenerated even fromsmall pieces of rootlets. Cutting drring drought season, showed more effectiveness.This alien invasive plant, which reduce land productivity and value is a threat specially to thispark. Present investigation highlights the necessity of proper control method for L. camara inUdawalawa NP

BANK RESERVATIONS ON MAJOR NATURAL STREAMS IN MAHAWELI SYSTEM B

A survey was made of the existence, width, and floristic composition of streamreservations on the hanks of two ofthe major natural streams in MahaweliSystem 8 area in the dry zone. The Mahaweli Project is the biggest irrigationand settlement scheme in Sri Lanka. The surviving reservations were far smallerthan prescribed in the relevant legislation The farmers had graduallyencroached on the original reservations, especially fill' paddy cultivation. SOllieperennial crops like coconuts, mangoes, jak, and breadfruit had also beenplanted where the water table was higher, near the streams. Widening andstraightening the streams to cope with the discharge water in the rainy seasonhad also destroyed the natural vegetation, and there was very little of it left. The floristic survey found 32 species of woody plants along one stream, and 27 alongthe other; altogether there were 4 endemic species. Stricter legislation and moreextension work are recommended

Estimation of Aboveground Carbon Stocks in Selected Homegardens in Five Agro Ecological Regions of the Low Country Intermediate Zone of Sri Lanka

Global warming is the most widespread problem of the new millennium. Carbon dioxide (CO2)is the most important greenhouse gas released as a result of human activities. As a consequence,global average temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 0C over the period of 1990 to2100. Forest based land use systems such as natural forests, forest plantations and agroforestrysystems store carbon in their biomass leading to reduction of the atmospheric Carbon dioxidelevels. Management of forests and agroforestry systems is identified as the most promisingoption to mitigate atmospheric Carbon dioxide (CO2). The objective of the present study was toinvestigate the carbon storage of homegardens located in the dry intermediate zone of Sri Lanka.Homegardens were selected based on the agro ecological regions and three homegardens eachwere taken for detailed studies in the 5 agro ecological regions (IL1), (IL2), (IL3), (IL1–L2),(IL1–L3) and the locations of the gardens were Kurunegala, Chilaw, Mahiyangana, Monergala,Wellawaya and Tangalle. In each garden transects were laid to capture the maximum diversityusing the Point Centre Quarter Method (PCQM) and a sampling intensity of around 60% wasobtained from each garden. Dbh and height were measured in each tree. Non woody trees andwoody trees having < 1cm dbh were excluded. Allometric regression equation AGB = 0.0509 xq D2H [AGB – abovegroud biomass (kg); D – dbh (cm) and H (height (m)] was used to estiamtethe aboveground biomass while Wc =W * 0.5 (Wc –carbon weight, W – above ground dryweight) was used to estimate the carbon content.According to the results, 55 woody species were recorded from the homegardens. Theaboveground carbon stock was highest in the gardens in Chilaw (345.88 t/ha) followed bygardens in Wellawaya (287.41 t/ha), gardens in Kurunegala (274.66 t/ha), gardens in Tangalle(229.57 t/ha), gardens in Mahiyangana (191.32 t/ha). The gardens in Moneragala recorded thelowest 9149.58 t/ha).

EMBRYOGENIC POTENTIAL OF CALLUS DERIVED FROM AN ADULT GIANT BAMBOO (Dendrocalamus giganteus Wall. ex Munro)

Dendrocalamus giganteus Wall.ex Munro (giant bamboo), the largest of the bamboos in SriLanka, is recommended for expanded cultivation. Natural means of propagation by vegetative orsexual methods is limited in this species. In the absence of a true breeding system, novelbiotechnological methods offer a para sexual alternative for genetic improvement. This wouldrequire de novo plant regeneration via callus, cell suspensions or protoplasts. With this objectivein view, callus was induced from axillary shoots, spikelets and roots that formed in vitro in acontinuously proliferating system of axillary shoots derived from a 70 year old field clump of D.giganteus. The callus proliferated in MS medium containing 4% sucrose, 2,4-D (7.5 rngl") andNAA (3 mgl") to form nodular callus that showed a potential for plantlet re~eneration. Thefriable callus readily formed cell suspensions in the presence of 2,4-D (7.5 mgl' ) along or withNAA (3 mgl"), These cells showed organized development to form structures that resembledpro-embryos. Organogenesis/embryogenesis is novel from long established adults although it ismore common in juveniles.This report signifies the potential of a 70-year-old adult bamboo for plantlet regeneration.

Investigation of Multiple Drivers and their Impact on Chronic Kidney Disease Unidentified - A Case Study in Padaviya Divisional Secretariat, Sri Lanka

Starting in the mid 1990s, Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown aetiology (CKDu) was discovered among the rice paddy farmers in the North Central Province (NCP) of Sri Lanka in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Districts. The disease has now spread to neighboring districts in the North Western, Eastern, and Uva as well as the Central and Northern Provinces. The CKDu prevalent area covers approximately 17,000 km with a predominantly rural population of 2.5 million. There is scientific consensus that this fatal disease in Sri Lanka is not related to known causes commonly identified with kidney disease, such as, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, or other factors such as snake bite. Many studies are ongoing to find the causative factor/s to this disease. This study was conducted with the intention of finding single/multiple causative factors which contributes to the disease incidence in the North Central Province with special reference to Padaviya Division which was identified as a high intense division for the disease by Ministry of Health. From the 15 Grama Niladhari (GN) Divisions 4 divisions were selected for the study (Sudarshanagama, Ruwanpura, Buddangala and Parakramapura) based on their relatively high disease prevalence. 30% of the households were selected from each GN Division randomly and a questionnaire was administered. In addition to this key informant surveys were carried out with priests of temples, Grama Niladhari, School teachers and Principals, leaders of farmer organisations, shop owners and keepers selling agrochemicals etc. Water samples were collected from selected wells for analysis of heavy metals. The results showed that similar trends were prevalent in the causative factors in all the GN Divisions although the percentage of disease incidence varied slightly (Parakramapura-33%; Sudarshanagama-35%; Ruwanpura-16%; Buddangala-40%). Of the respondents having the disease 94% had used well water for drinking prior to the disease and had been using it for more than 20 years. 88% of the affected persons used aluminum utensils for their cooking. The age of the affected ranged from 37 to 83 years with the mediun of 63. Significant difference was not seen among the gender. About 82% of the affected personnel were farmers who had used agrochemicals in their farming practices. A significant relationship was shown between the income level and disease incidence (82% were drawing less than Rs. 10,000/month). Persons who had hypertension were more prone to the disease while prior diabetes conditions did not show a relationship. People consuming alcohol and tobacco were more prone to the disease. Those who had snake bites previously were not shown to be susceptible while usage of ayurvedic drugs showed a weaker relationship. The well water samples taken from the affected areas showed elevated concentrations of Cadmium and Lead compared with the drinking water standards stipulated by the Sri Lanka Standards Institution. It can therefore be concluded that multiple factors contribute to the prevalence of CKDu such as occupation, income level, drinking water source, type of utensils used and personnel habits but the most prominent ones were drinking water quality, utensils used for cooking and farming occupations using agrochemicals.Keywords: Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown, Agrochemicals, Cadmium, Lea