POTENTIAL OF AGROFORESTRY IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SRI LANKA

In order to meet the increasing demand of a growing population andincreased aspirations, Sri Lanka has to increase and sustainproduction/procurement of essential items including food, energy, resourcesfor shelter, apparels etc. Agroforestry which is a method of integration oftrees and agricultural crops and/or animals can be considered an appropriateand useful method for achieving economic, environmental and socialsustainability. There is an age-old agro forestry traditions in the country andnumerous examples of its practices are to be found in all climatic zones. Inaddition to these, development of new management strategies using scientificand systematic management strategies for wider adoption have been arelatively recent approach.This paper reviews the agroforestry interventions such as home gardens,farmers' woodlots, use of agro forestry for management of watersheds,intercropping under coconut, energy plantations under coconut and alleycropping. Physical factors and government! institutional variables areconsidered as external determinants while socio-economic factors ofindividual farm families contribute as inputs to the operation.Recommendations are also given to further develop their systems forsustainable development

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA· A REVIEW OF SOME PROJECTS

Community participation is an approach that is receiving attention across the globe, andone that marks a departure from the 'catching up' , 'top down' orientation whichcharacterised the cultural dimension of the modernist perspective of development whichwas in vogue in the 1960' s.This paper reviews a number of community participation projects which had beenformulated to conserve the country's natural resources and to empower people and ruralcommunities tomanage and protect them in a sustainable manner while reaping economicbenefits. The projects that are discussed are two coastal resources management projects ofthe Coast Conservation Department located in Hikkaduwa (dealing with the conservationof corel reet) and Rekawa (dealing with lagoon and mangrove habitat conservation) andtwo community based management projects located in Ritigala (dealing with medicinalplants) and Kahalle - Pallekelle (dealing with human-elephant conflict). The followingaspects are highlighted in each of these projects/cases;* the degree/level of community participation* the presence of collaborative decision making and co-management* the key natural resource problems and their underlying causes* the key stakeholders and interest of each stakeholder group* the management strategies adopted, the extent to which these have beenable to address the needs of the community* the degree of sustainabilityThe paper synthesises the degree of success and failures of each project in its approach tothe community. planning, implementation and monitoring. Recommendations are givenfor future improvement of community based conservation in Sri Lanka

COMMUNITY BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA -A REVIEW OF SOME PROJECTS

Community participation is an approach that is receiving attention across theglobe and one that marks a departure from the 'top down' orientation, whichcharacterized the cultural dimension of the modernist perspective ofdevelopment.This paper reviews two projects, which had been formulated to conserve thecountry's natural resources and to empower people and rural communities tomanage and protect them in a sustainable manner while reaping economicbenefits. The projects that are discussed are' Akkaraseeya' site of the UpperWatershed Management Project of the Ministry of Environment and NaturalResources and Participatory Forestry Project of the Forest Department. Ineach of these projects, the degree/level of community participation, thepresence of collaborative decision making and co-management, the keystakeholders and interest of each stakeholder group, the managementstrategies adopted, the extent to which these have been able to address theneeds of the community and the degree of sustainability are being discussed

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN THE ACCELERATED MAHAWELI PROJECT

The Mahawcli Development Project is the largest single development programmeundertaken by the Govcmmcnt of Sri Lanka. The Accelerated Programme which wascompleted in :') years envisaged the construction of 4 major reservoirs with hydro-electricityplants. developed about I7:')J60 ha of lands in the downstream areas with irrigationfacilities and established new sculcmcnts of about 74253 families. New and improvedcultivation resulted in the annual production of more than 600.000 tons of rice. Thereservoirs increased the hydroelectric gcnerating capacity hy about 400 megawatts.Among the impacts of the Upper Mahawcli Catchment which includes watersheds andxubwatcrshcds of Kotmalc Oyn. Maha Oya, Urna Oya, Beli-hul Oya is vital as the principlesource of water for hydropower and irrigation projects. Among the threats to theenvironment. the premature silting up of a number of reservoirs especially Polgolla.Raruambe etc. can be noted. Deforestation for chcna cultivation in the steep slopes coupledwith the high water table prevalent in the area results in carthslips and landslides.Deforestation has also caused significant reduction in wildlife habitats in both upstreamand downstream areas. A large number of animals and plants including endangered,threatened and endemic species had been reduced. Due to the use of high quantities ofagrochemicals the agricultural return waters has caused eutrophication in reservoirs. tanksand other w.ucrhodics impairing the effective functioning of these entities and affecting thelife Iorms in them.Among the significant concerns in the downstream areas. rise in the watcrtable thusnecessitating drainage. increased salinity in some areas, contamination of natural waterways due to high usage of agrochcmicals in agricultural practices. increased encounterswith pocketed wild animals causing death and damages to property can be cited.Among the social concerns or the settlements, necessity of high inputs thus reducing thcnet income of the Iarrners. inability to manage holdings with family labour. inadequatesupplies of irrigation water. inadequate service facilities (transportation, schooling. hcalthctc.), rcstrictcd/un employment or the second generation settlers. increased incidence orwater horne and vector horne diseases. teenage suicides can be mentioned.Mitigatory measures which have already been taken by Mahaweli Authority to addressthese conccrnx have been stated along with some recommendations fort the future toachieve the objectives 01" the Mahawcli Programme on a environmentally sustainablemanner.

COMPARISON OF THREE NATURE TRAILS IN KANNELlYA MAS RESERVE FOR NATURE BASED TOURISM WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BIODIVERSITY.

The Kanneliya Forest Reserve and Nakiyadeniya Proposed Reserve in Galle District andDediyagala Forest Reserve in Matara District form continuous block of natural forest(KDN Forest complex) covering 11,146 ha in the south-west lowland hills. The KDNforest complex was logged by the Ceylon Plywoods Corporation between 1968 and 1988.However, Kanneliya MAB Reserve, one of the immaculate tropical rainforests, whichcovers 5305 ha of area, blended with majestic features is an ideal rain forest forrecreation. Its close proximity to other recreational sites adds to its overall recreationalvalue. Conservation management pian for KDN Complex (1995) also had identifiedKanneliya as a probable site for nature based tourism.This study focused on evaluating the potential of the forest reserve for nature based tourism. Thefaunal biodiversity of the reserve useful for nature-based tourism was enumerated in 3 welldefinednature trails, which are already present. Three visits were made along these trails on threesuccessive dates. In each trail 10 inward and out ward journeys were made taking random timegaps. During these visits all the faunal species encountered were recorded. All the tree species andherbs along these trails at visible range were also recorded. The study covered one entire seasonintended to capture migratory animals also.Results showed in Nature trail up to Narangas ella to Anagimala ella (NT!), 79 tree species werecounted with 63% of endemic species and 4 threatened species. In the Nature trail of Kabbalekanda 300m from MSL (NT2) 78 tree species were recorded with 67.9% endemic species and 6threatened species. Nature trail 3 in " Mala kanda" (Highest point 250m from MSL) NT3 treespecies were recorded with 65.6% endemic species and 4 threatened species.At NTI 53 bird species were recorded among them 8 were endemic and 7 were wintervisitors, 31 butterfly species with 9 endemic, 9 reptile species with 3 endemic, 3amphibians with 1 endemic, 4 mammal species with 3 endemic and 5 fish species with 4endemic.NT2 recorded 45 bird species with 6 endemic and 8 winter visitors, 30 butterfly species with 09endemic species, 8 reptile species with 2 endemic, 5 amphibians with 4 endemic, 5 mammals with2 endemic and 6 fish species with 5 endemic.At NT3 46 bird species were recorded with 5 endemic and 7 winter visitors, 28 butterfly species08 endemic, 6 reptile species with I endemic, 2 amphibians with ! endemic, 5 manunals with Iendemic and 19 fish species with 12 endemic.NT2 had the highest floristic diversity followed by NTI and NT3. In terms of faunal diversity NTIholds the highest value followed by NT2 and NT3. Birds and Butterflies showed the highestprobability in NTI followed by NT2. However, NT3 showed remarkably weakest probability.Therefore it can be concluded by way of observing biodiversity NTl & NT2 have the highestpotential.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF FOREST PLANTATIONS (TEAK) IN SRI LANKA IN ACTING AS A CARBON SINK TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Global warming is one of the major environmental issues on earth caused by theanthropogenic activities. This is brought about by the greenhouse effect due toaccumulation of greenhouse gases in the earth's atmosphere. Carbon dioxide(C02) is the major contributor to the greenhouse effect.This research project was carried out with two objective viz. to quantify theamount of carbon stored in the teak tTectona grandis) plantations in Sri Lankaand to quantify the amount of carbon sequestered in different ages of theplantation.The quantification of the carbon stored in the current standing teak plantations inSri Lanka is based on the Forest Department Inventory Database - TheFORDA TA. The data were acquired as a sub block mean and were calculatedusing standard formulae to quantify the divisional value and the country value.Only the merchantable volume of the bole wood had been considered in thisstudy, since that is the portion, which lasts for a long time without releasing itscarbon storage to the atmosphere. The data obtained from the FORDAT Adatabase was field verified in three (3) major teak growing forest divisions in thecountry, namely Kurunegala, Puttalam and Anuradhapura.The amount of carbon dioxide trapped in the state owned teak plantations in SriLanka, currently without being emitted to the atmosphere for a long time is608,62 Gt C and the mean carbon storage of teak plantations (rotation length wastaken as 50 years)is 133.66 tC/haWhen the carbon sequestration was calculated by the mean carbon storage indifferent age classes the results obtained were: age class 1 to 10 years = 1.1tC/ha/yr, age class 11 to 20 years = 64.7 tC/ha/yr, age class 21 to 30 years e 322.2tC/ha/yr, age class 31 to 40 years= 466.4 tC/ha/yr, age class 41 to 50 yeras :: 52.2tC/ha/yr.According to the data obtained the current storage of carbon in the state ownedteak plantations is 1.66 x 105 kt and the teak trees sequester carbon in the growingages 0 years to 49 years.In conclusion, teak plantations up to 49 years can be effectively used as sinks forcarbon storage

FORMULATION OF SUSTAINABLE AGRO FORESTRY MODELS FOR NORTH CENTRAL DRY ZONE OF SRI LANKA

Increase of human population and clearing of forests for their requirements has been alocal as well as global environmental crisis. In Sri Lanka, forest cover has dwindled at analarming rate from 70% in 1990 to 22% as of present. Deforestation and degradation ofland due to many reasons including poverty related land management practices such asshifting cultivation and forest encroachments, conversion of forest estate to other moreeconomically profitable land uses are some of the reasons for the loss of forest. agroforestryhas been identified all over the world as an appropriate alternative which providessustainabilityAccording to the Forestry Sector master Plan (1995) the necessity of utilizing the sparsely·used scrub lands for agroforestry ventures to improve the tree cover and socio-economicstatus of the people has been identified. Forest Department too in its Participatory ForestryProject has ventured into establishment of farmers woodlots with the active participation ofcommunities and this programme is wide spread in many parts of the country especially inthe dry zone. However, the composition of these farmers woodlots still not complete toincorporate diversity and sustainability. Therefore, the objective of this present study is toformulate sustainable tree-crop models for a wide range of land classes in the north centraldry zone of Sri LankaIpalogama divisional Secretariat in Anuradhapura District was identified for the study.Field studies were done in handsomely selected 3 traditional tank based villages namelySangattewa, Puliyankulama and Dampeleassagama . Information was gathered through aquestionnaire survey, field visits and personnel interviews with villagers. Randomelyselected 44 households or 14.8% of the total households in the 3 villages were subjected tothe survey. The species composition and vertical and horizontal diversity, lightrequirements, multiple uses, financial returns/ha, prevalence of local/indigenous treespecies and farmer's choice were taken into consideration in the formulation of theagroforestry models for the various land classes sampled egoAlluvial plains, middle slopesand upper slopes etc.

A SURVEY OF THE MARKET AVAILABILITY AND ITS POTENTIAL FOR NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MEDICINAL PLANTS AND CANE

Forests provide numerous benefits other than timber and fuelwood and these arecalled non-wood forest products. They playa vital role especially in the ruraleconomy and provide benefits of considerable importance at the national level.Despite an escalating demand, these non wood forest products do not entermarkets directly due to the absence of proper marketing channels. Thisdiscourage primary collectors, do not warrant for sustainable collection of theproduce in the wild and the possible planting of the resources.This study was conducted to assess the current market situation for non-woodforest products with special reference to medicinal plants and cane with a view tomake recommendations for the improvement of the marketing situation in thisregard.Data were collected from plant collectors, small scale regional buyers andwholesale dealers by way of questionnaires and interviews. To collectinformation on medicinal plants 4 areas where medicinal plants are very muchabundant were selected, viz. Ritigala (Anuradhapura District), Rajawakaa·(Ratnapura District), Kanneliya (Galle District) and Bibile (Moneragala District).With regard to Cane, the most abundant areas; Manampitiya (PolonnaruwaDistrict) and BaduraJiya (Kalutara District) were selected. Further, data were alsocollected from wholesale dealers of medicinal plants at Gabo's Lane andayurvedic product manufacturers. With regard to cane, product manufacturers atRadawadunna were interviewed. Secondary data were collected from institutions.The results revealed that both medicinal plants and cane are being collected in aunsustainable manner. As the existing marketing situation is disorganised, themiddle man is benefited most while the collectors do not reap much benefit fortheir labour. Majority of the crude medicinal plant materials are still importedwhile there is very low value addition to the material that is exported. Most of theraw cane too is imported. The cane available in the country do not fetch a gooddemand as it is considered as low quality. Most of the people engaged in thesebusinesses do not use the facilities offered by the banks very much possiblythrough unawareness.The following recommendations emanated from the study to improve themarketing situation with regard to the above industries in the country;introduction of sustainable methods of collection, planting of the produce incountry as large medium scale plantations, improving the quality of products andvalue addition and making the people more aware for the facilities provided byfinancial organizations to improve the industries.

Assessment of tsunami damage on the coastal vegetation in 3 selected locations in Yala National Park

Tsunami, the killer wave swept nearly two thirds of the coast of Sri Lanka on 26th of December, 2004.About 40,000 people died and around 500,000 people were displaced, more than 119,000 housesdamaged either fully or partially. About 13 coastal districts were directly affected, the north and eastsuffered the brunt of the blow accounting for about 2/3 of deaths and 60% of displacements. In termsof ecological aspects, with the exception of few species, most of the vegetation suffered total orpartial death, lagoons, estuaries, coral reefs, sea grass beds, salt marshes and mangroves experiencedthe damage at varying levels.A study was conducted in 3 Tsunami affected locations in Block 2 of the Yala Natoinal Park with aview to assess the condition of the vegetation more than 1.5 years after the incident. In each site, 3plots which were lOx 10m were demarcated the vegetation including trees, shrubs and groundvegetation was assessed. A tsunami non affected site in close proximity to the study sites was takenas the control. Direct observations were also made on the dead plants, regenerated one, other externaldifferences observed (color changes etc.). Shannon's Diversity Index (Diversity, Evenness andDominance) and Stand Variables such as Relative Frequency and Relative Density were calculatedusing the data. In addition to the vegetation, soil and water were also assessed for pl-I, conductivity,salinity etc. The measurements were repeated twice in the experimental period of 6 months51 species which belongs to 30 families were observed (without ground vegetation) in the 27 plotsstudied. The stand variables did not differ significantly between the 3 sites studied. However, somespecies had higher proportional abundances in Tsunami affected sites compared to those which werenot affected. Kathurupila (Tephorosia purpurea), Lunuwarana (Crateva religiosa), Ranawara(Cassia auriculata) were more prominent in the Tsunami affected sites in Mahaseelawa comparedto the non affected sites in the same location. Patassa was seen abundantly in non tsunami affectedsites. Korakaha (Memecylon umbellotumi and Katupila (Tephorosia purpurea) were most abundantamong the shrubs in tsunami affected areas while Wal pichcha (Momordica diociai was prominentin unaffected areas. In the Patanangala site, among the trees Elabatu was' seen quite prominently(Solanum xanthocarpum). Attana (Datura mete!), Wal kochchi (Croton bonplandianuss recordedthe highest proportional abundance. In non tsunami affected areas Gandapana (Lantana camaraiand Maduruthala (Hortinia horibunda) recorded the highest abundance. In Buthawapitiya siteLunuwarana (Crateva religiosa) , Ranawara (Cassia auriculatai, Katupila (Tephorosia purpurea),and Pila (Tephorosia purpurea ). Andara (Acacia leucophloea) was seen in both tsunami affectedand non affected areas.In general, four species were observed to be dominant in the vegetation in the Tsunami affected areasie, Walkochchi (Croton bonplandianusy, Attana (Datura metals, Kathurupila (Tephorosia purpurea).Leguminosae and Euphorbiaceae were the most dominating families in species of this Tsunami affectedsites and Rubaceae and Oleaceae were the most dominant species in Tsunami not affected areas.The water quality showed significant variation between the sites studied while soil parameters werenot significantly different. The electrical conductivity of water was highest in Bathuwapitiya site pHdid not show significant difference between sites. Buthawapitiya recorded high salinity values comparedto other sites. Soils did not record values which were significantly different.(SME 's were considered to be business that had employed less than 25 workers and less thanRs.5 Mn turn over in immediately preceding 12 months period.)

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION OF Dipterocarpus zeylanicus BY CUTIINGS

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, an endemic tree in Sri Lanka offers great potential forbridging the gap between supply and demand of timber in the country. However,at present it has not been widely used as a plantation species. Establishment ofplantation by seeds has proved somewhat difficult due to low viability etc.Genetically uniform planting stock can be obtained rapidly through vegetativepropagation.With the above objective in mind an experiment was conducted to propagate stemcuttings of Ir.zeylanicus using a variety of rooting hormones under both mist andnon-mist conditions. In all the instances. cuttings of 15 em length and 0.3-0.4 mrnbasal diameter with two and half leaves were used. The hormone concentrationsused were, Indole Butyic Acid (lBA) 500 pprn, 1000 ppm and 1500 ppm and thecommercial hormone Sector (NAA + fungicide). Control did not have anyhormone treatment. The medium used was sand. The experiment was conductedunder two conditional environments; under a automatic mist and in a non-mistpolypropagator, a low cost alternative which was also designed to maintain a highhumidity through water manipulation.After the experimental period of 10 weeks, there was a marked differencebetween the mist and non-mist conditions in percentage survival of cuttings. Inall the treatments, % survival was higher under mist. In terms of percentagerooting, the cuttings under the non-mist propagator did not show rooting at allalthough callusing was observed in all the treatments at varying success levels.Among the rooting treatments, the highest percentage rooting (38. 10%) wasshown in the control without rooting hormones closely followed by otherhormone treatments. However, the treatment 1000 pprn of IBA showed thelowest percentage rooting (11.11 %).From these results, it can be concluded that