Modelling eco-physiological response of table olive trees (Olea europaea L.) to soil water deficit conditions

The knowledge of crop response to water stress is crucial to predict transpiration reductions under limited soil water conditions and for a rational scheduling of irrigation. In order to assess whatever water stress model, it is necessary to estimate critical thresholds of soil water status, below which plant transpiration starts to decrease. The main objective of the work is to identify the shape and to determine the parameters of table olive orchards (Olea europaea, var. Nocellara del Belice) water stress function, assessed according to relative transpiration or leaf/stem water potential. In order to assess different water stress functions describing the eco-physiological field response to soil water status, an experimental campaign was carried out in a farm located in South-West coast of Sicily. Meteorological data and soil and crop water status were monitored during irrigation seasons 2008 and 2009. A value of soil matric potential of about −40 m was identified as the threshold below which actual transpiration decreases with decreasing soil water content. For values of soil matric potential higher than the critical threshold, actual transpiration resulted almost constant. A similar behavior was observed when the xylematic leaf/stem water potentials were used to quantify the crop water stress. Investigation also showed that the non-linear models better reproduced the initial phase of the transpiration reduction process; for the examined crop, in fact, convex shape models, typical of xerophytes, better reproduce the reductions of actual transpiration under the soil water deficit conditions recognized in the field

Indirect estimation of calibration equation parameters for Sentek Diviner 2000 capacitance probe by means of soil physical properties

Measurements of soil water content (SWC) are often used for irrigation scheduling. Accurate monitoring of SWC is necessary, for example, to identify the exact irrigation timing and the amount of water volume to supply according to the crop requirement. The use of capacitance probes, measuring the apparent soil dielectric permittivity, indirectly related to soil water status, have been increasing during the last decade, as proved by the numerous researches carried out to determine, for different soil types, site-specific calibration relationships between SWC and the scaled frequency (SF) measured by the sensor. However, for swelling/shrinking clay soils, there is a lack of knowledge on how the changes of soil bulk density associated to variations of soil water content influence the apparent dielectric permittivity and therefore the sensor calibration relationship, as a consequence of the different contribute that soil, water and air, have on the measure provided by the sensor. The main objectives of the work are i) to determine the site specific calibration equations for a Sentek Diviner 2000 capacitance probe for soils characterized by different texture, ii) to investigate on the effects of soil bulk density and its variability with soil water content, on the calibration equation and iii) to proceed to the indirect estimation of calibration parameters by means of easily-measurable soil physical properties. Experiments were carried out on nine different soils collected from Sicilian irrigated area, characterized by a clay percentage ranging between 9% and 45%. Undisturbed soil samples (25 cm diameter and 25 cm height), allowed to determine, for each soil, the corresponding site-specific calibration equation. On the other hands, samples having the same dimensions, but filled with sieved soil and compacted at two different bulk densities ( b), were used to investigate on the effects of soil texture and bulk density on the measured SF. On each undisturbed or sieved sample and for all the investigated soils, the shrinkage characteristic curve, b(U) and the U(SF) relationship were contextually determined. The experiments on sieved soil samples, allowed to verify that the scaled frequency measured by the sensor also depends on b. According to this result, the generally used calibration equation was modified and a new empirical model U(SF, b), introducing the relationship b(U) as a factor, was proposed. Of course, for swelling/shrinkage clay soil the suggested calibration equation results implicit, if considering that b is also a function of U. The experiments also allowed to verify that parameters of the calibration equation depend on soil clay percentage and then to identify empirical relationships for their estimation, that were finally validated by using measurements acquired on undisturbed soil samples and some data collected by the literature

Improvement of FAO-56 Model to Estimate Transpiration Fluxes of Drought Tolerant Crops under Soil Water Deficit: Application for Olive Groves

Agro-hydrological models are considered an economic and simple tool for quantifying crop water requirements. In the last two decades, agro-hydrological physically based models have been developed to simulate mass and energy exchange processes in the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Although very reliable, because of the high number of required variables, simplified models have been proposed to quantify crop water consumes. The main aim of this paper is to propose an amendment of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations FAO-56 spreadsheet program to introduce a more realistic shape of the stress function, valid for mature olive orchards (Olea europaea L.). The modified model is successively validated by means of the comparison between measured and simulated soil water contents and actual transpiration fluxes. These outputs are finally compared with those obtained with the original version of the model. Experiments also allowed assessing the ability of simulated crop water stress coefficients to explain the actual water stress conditions evaluated on the basis of measured relative transpirations and midday stem water potentials. The results show that the modified model significantly improves the estimation of actual crop transpiration fluxes and soil water contents under soil water deficit conditions, according to the RMSEs associated with the revised model, resulting in significantly higher than the corresponding values obtained with the original version

Detecting crop water status in mature olive groves using vegetation spectral measurements

Full spectral measurements (350-2500nm) at tree canopy and leaf levels and the corresponding leaf water potentials (LWP) were acquired in an olive grove of Sicily, at different hours of the day, during summer season 2011. The main objective of the work was to assess, on the basis of the experimental data-set, two different approaches to detect crop water status in terms of LWP. Specifically, using existing families of Vegetation Indices (VIs) and applying Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) were optimised and tested. The results indicated that a satisfactory estimation of LWP at tree canopy and leaf levels can be obtained using vegetation indices based on the near infrared-shortwave infrared (NIR-SWIR) domain requiring, however, a specific optimisation of the corresponding "centre-bands". At tree canopy level, a good prediction of LWP was obtained by using optimised indices working in the visible domain, like the Normalized Difference Greenness Vegetation Index (NDGI, RMSE=0.37 and R2=0.57), the Green Index (GI, RMSE=0.53 and R2=0.39) and the Moisture Spectral Index (MSI, RMSE=0.41 and R2=0.48). On the other hand, a satisfactory estimation of LWP at leaf level was obtained using indices combining SWIR and NIR wavelengths. The best prediction was specifically found by optimising the MSI (RMSE of 0.72 and R2=0.45) and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI, RMSE=0.75 and R2=0.45). Even using the PLSR technique, a remarkable prediction of LWP at both tree canopy and leaf levels was obtained. However, this technique requires the availability of full spectra with high resolution, which can only be obtained with handheld spectroradiometers or hyper-spectral remote sensors

Evapotranspiration from an Olive Orchard using Remote Sensing-Based Dual Crop Coefficient Approach

A remote sensing-based approach to estimate actual evapotranspiration (ET) was tested in an area covered by olive trees and characterized by Mediterranean climate. The methodology is a modified version of the standard FAO-56 dual crop coefficient procedure, in which the crop potential transpiration, Tp, is obtained by directly applying the Penman-Monteith (PM) equation with actual canopy characteristics (i.e., leaf area index, albedo and canopy height) derived from optical remote sensing data. Due to the minimum requirement of in-situ ancillary inputs, the methodology is suitable also for applications on large areas where the use of tabled crop coefficient values become problematic, due to the need of corrections for specific crop parameters, i.e., percentage of ground cover, crop height, phenological cycles, etc. The methodology was applied using seven airborne remote sensing images acquired during spring-autumn 2008. The estimates based on PM approach always outperforms the ones obtained using simple crop coefficient constant values. Additionally, the comparison of simulated daily evapotranspiration and transpiration with the values observed by eddy correlation and sap flow techniques, respectively, shows a substantial agreement during both dry and wet days with an accuracy in the order of 0.5 and 0.3 mm d−1, respectively. The obtained results suggest the capability of the proposed approach to correctly partition evaporation and transpiration components during both the irrigation season and rainy period also under conditions of significant reduction of actual ET from the potential one

Comparison of SWAP and FAO Agro-Hydrological Models to Schedule Irrigation of Wine Grape

This paper compares two agro-hydrological models that are used to schedule irrigation of a typical Mediterranean crop. In particular, a comparison between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) model, which uses a black box approach, and the soil-water-atmosphere-plant (SWAP) model, which is based on the numerical analysis of Richards' equation, are shown for wine grape. The comparison was carried out for the 2005 and 2006 irrigation seasons and focused on hydrological balance components and on soil water contents. Next, the ordinary scheduling parameters were identified so that the performance of the two models, which aimed to evaluate the seasonal water requirements and the irrigation times, could be assessed. In the validation phase, both of the models satisfactorily simulated the soil water content, and comparable values of cumulative evapotranspiration were obtained. With the goal of recognizing the crop water stress condition in the field, the original algorithm of the FAO model was modified. This research provided evidence of how the two agrohydrological models, although characterized by different approaches in modeling the phenomena, showed a similar behaviour when used for scheduling irrigation under soil water deficit conditions. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers

Combined use of eddy covariance and sap flow techniques for partition of ET fluxes and water stress assessment in an irrigated olive orchard

Correct estimation of crop actual transpiration plays a key-role in precision irrigation scheduling, since crop growth and yield are associated to the water passing through the crop. Objective of the work was to assess how the combined use of micro-meteorological techniques (eddy covariance, EC) and physiological measurements (sap flow, SF) allows a better comprehension of the processes involving in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere continuum. To this aim, an experimental dataset of actual evapotranspiration, plant transpiration, and soil water content measurements was collected in an olive orchard during the midseason phenological period of 2009 and 2010. It was demonstrated that the joint use of EC and SF techniques is effective to evaluate the components of actual evapotranspiration in an olive orchard characterized by sparse vegetation and a significant fraction of exposed bare soil. The availability of simultaneous soil water content measurements allowed to estimate the crop coefficients and to assess a simple crop water stress index, depending on actual transpiration that can be evaluated even in the absence of direct measurements of actual transpiration. The crop coefficients experimentally determined resulted very similar to those previously evaluated; in particular, in the absence of water stress, a seasonal average value of about 0.65 was obtained for the "single" crop coefficient, whereas values of a 0.34 and 0.41 were observed under limited water availability in the root zone. The comparison between the values of crop water stress index evaluated during the investigated periods evidenced systematically lower values (less crop water stress) in the first year compared to the second, according to the general trend of soil waters content in the root zone. Further researches are however necessary to extent the experimental dataset to periods characterized by values of soil evaporation higher than those observed, in order to verify the crop coefficients even under different conditions than those investigated. © 2012 Elsevier B.V

Modelli di bilancio agro-idrologico per la previsione dello stress idrico di colture arboree mediterranee

Il contributo si propone di dimostrare come l‟uso della modellistica agro-idrologica possa consentire una corretta previsione delle dinamiche di stress idrico di due importanti colture arboree Mediterranee (olivo e agrume), caratterizzate da una diversa risposta eco-fisiologica a condizioni di deficit idrico del suolo. In particolare viene analizzata in dettaglio la tematica della modellizzazione della risposta eco-fisiologica delle due colture e viene affrontata la questione relativa all‟implementazione delle funzioni di stress all‟interno dei modelli di bilancio agro-idrologico di tipo a serbatoio, in modo da simulare l‟effettivo stato idrico della pianta. Con riferimento alle colture esaminate, è nello specifico approfondita la schematizzazione della funzione di stress attraverso l‟analisi di lunghe serie di dati acquisiti nel corso di sperimentazione in campo, relative allo stato idrico del suolo (contenuti idrici volumetrici) e della pianta (potenziali idrici xilematici e flussi traspirativi). È infine discussa l‟applicabilità del modello semplificato descritto nel quaderno FAO n. 56 (Allen et al., 1998) per la predizione delle dinamiche di stress idrico delle colture ed è approfondita l‟importanza che riveste una specifica schematizzazione della funzione di stress idrico nel miglioramento delle performance del modello.The contribute aims to demonstrate how agro-hydrological models are able to predict the water stress dynamics of two important Mediterranean arboreal crops, i.e. olive and citrus, characterized by different eco-physiological water stress response to soil water deficit conditions. In particular, the topic related to the crop water stress function and its implementation into agro-hydrological bucket models is analyzed in order to improve the estimations of actual crop water status. With reference to the examined crops, the proposed schematization of the water stress functions is based on long time series of field measurements of soil (volumetric water contents) and plant (xylem water potentials and transpiration fluxes) water status. The applicability of the bucket model proposed by FAO (Allen et al., 1998) to predict the crop water stress dynamics is also discussed in order to emphasize the importance of a specific schematization of the stress function to improve the model's performance