Spherulite formation in obsidian lavas in the Aeolian Islands, Italy

The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge Andy Tindle (The Open University) for assistance with EMP analyses, and Richard Darton and David Evans (Keele University) for assistance with XRD and Prof Alun Vaughan and Nicola Freebody (University of Southampton) with Raman analyses. LAB is grateful to Sophie Blanchard for support with MATLAB. The authors acknowledge support from Keele University, and grants from the Mineralogical Society (UK and Ireland) and Volcanic and Magmatic Studies Group. The authors thank Silvio Mollo and Francesca Forni for their detailed and helpful comments.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Emplacement of the Rocche Rosse rhyolite lava flow (Lipari, Aeolian Islands)

The authors acknowledge Airbus Defence and Space for providing satellite imagery, financial support from Keele University and fieldwork grants from the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland and the Volcanic and Magmatic Studies Group. LAB wishes to thank Leanne Patrick and James Watling for fieldwork assistance. The authors are grateful for the thorough and constructive comments from Guido Giordano and an anonymous reviewer, as well as the careful editorial handling of Kathy Cashman and Andrew Harris, which greatly improved this manuscript. Open access via Springer CompactPeer reviewedPublisher PD

Chromitite petrogenesis in the mantle section of the Ballantrae Ophiolite Complex (Scotland)

Podiform chromitites from the Ballantrae Ophiolite Complex (BOC), NW Scotland, are examined to investigate their petrogenesis and elucidate the nature of melt percolation in the supra-subduction zone oceanic mantle more generally. The mantle portion of the BOC comprises two petrologically distinct serpentinite belts, whose differences have previously been attributed to different degrees of upper mantle melt extraction. Chromitite occurs in each of the northern and southern serpentinite belts, at Pinbain Bridge and Poundland Burn, respectively. Field relationships suggest that chromitites were formed by melt-rock reaction in channel-like conduits in the upper mantle. Chromitite Cr-spinel compositions from the two localities show marked differences to one another, with the Pinbain Bridge chromitite Cr-spinels being characterised by relatively high Cr# [Cr/(Cr?+?Al); 0.62–0.65] and lower abundances of certain trace elements (e.g., Ti, Ga, V), whereas the Poundland Burn chromitite Cr-spinels exhibit relatively low Cr# (0.44–0.46) and higher concentrations of these trace elements. The contrasting Cr-spinel compositions are used to estimate parental magma compositions for the chromitites; the Pinbain Bridge chromitites crystallised from magmas resembling arc tholeiites whereas MORB-like magmas were involved in formation of the Poundland Burn chromitites. While it is possible that this dichotomy points to early derivation of the BOC at a MORB spreading centre, with subsequent processing in a supra-subduction zone, we suggest that the differences reflect melt extraction from different parts of an evolving subduction zone, such that the MORB-like magmas were generated in a back-arc setting. This interpretation finds support in the Ti/Fe3# versus Ga/Fe3# systematics of peridotite-hosted accessory Cr-spinel that we present here, as well as previously published trace element data and geochronological constraints on the basalt lava sequences associated with the BOC, which collectively favour formation of the Poundland Burn chromitites in supra-subduction zone mantle

Braided peridotite sills and metasomatism in the Rum Layered Suite, Scotland

The Rum Eastern Layered Intrusion (ELI; Scotland) is an open-system layered intrusion constructed of 16 macro-rhythmic units. Each of the macro-rhythmic units consists of a peridotite base and a troctolite (+/- gabbro) top, previously attributed to the fractional crystallisation of a single magma batch. This classic paradigm has been challenged, however, with evidence presented for the emplacement of peridotite sills in Units 9, 10, and 14, such as cross-cutting relationships, upward-oriented apophyses, and lateral discontinuities. To test whether the other major peridotites within the ELI represent sills, we have carried out new field, petrographic, and mineral chemical analyses of the peridotites in Units 7, 8 and 9. The peridotites display large- and small-scale cross-cutting relationships with the overlying troctolite, indicative of an intrusive relationship. The peridotites also show large-scale coalescence and lateral spatial discontinuities such that the ELI unit divisions become arbitrary. Harrisite layers and Cr-spinel seams found throughout Units 7, 8, and 9 suggest the peridotites were constructed incrementally via repeated injections of picritic magma. Our observations allow for distinct subtypes of peridotite to be defined, separated by intrusive contacts, allowing for their relative chronology to be determined. Older, poikilitic peridotite, rich in clinopyroxene, is truncated by younger, well-layered peridotite, containing abundant harrisite layers. In addition to the new peridotite subtypes defined in this study, we find strong evidence for laterally oriented metasomatism within clinopyroxene-rich wehrlites at the top of the Unit 8 peridotite. The wehrlites and surrounding peridotites record a complex series of metasomatic reactions that transformed thin picrite sills into clinopyroxene-rich wehrlites without any evidence for the sort of vertical melt movement typically posited in layered intrusions. The observations presented in this study from the ELI cannot be reconciled with the classic magma chamber paradigm and are better explained by the emplacement of composite sills into pre-existing feldspathic cumulate (gabbro or troctolite). The evidence for sill emplacement presented here suggests that the layered complex was constructed by a combination of sill emplacement and metasomatism, forming many of the unusual (often clinopyroxene-rich) lithologies that surround the sills. The broad-scale formation of the layered peridotites via incremental sill emplacement, suggested by the occurrence of upward-oriented apophyses, coalescence, and lateral discontinuity, could be applied to much larger ultramafic intrusions, which might have formed by similar mechanisms

Linking in situ crystallisation and magma replenishment via sill intrusion in the Rum Western Layered Intrusion, NW Scotland

The construction of layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions has traditionally been attributed to gravity driven accumulation, involving the mechanical settling of crystals onto the magma chamber floor, at the interface between the crystal mush at the base and overlying replenishing magma, such that the layered sequence of cumulates (i.e., the crystal mush) at the floor aggrades upwards. The Rum Western Layered Intrusion (WLI) is a ~250 m sequence of layered peridotite cumulates comprising the structurally lowest portion of the Rum Layered Suite (RLS). As such, it is taken to represent the oldest sequence in the RLS and has been assumed to young upwards. The WLI hosts the largest proportion of harrisite, a cumulate composed of skeletal olivine that formed by in situ crystallisation, in the Rum layered intrusion. Harrisite layers in the WLI ubiquitously exhibit extremely irregular upward-oriented apophyses, up to several metres high and metres across, alongside laterally extensive dome-like structures; features consistent with intrusive, sill-like emplacement of harrisite. The distribution and abundance of harrisite therefore points to chaotic sill-like emplacement of the magmas that produced at least half of the WLI cumulate. This probably occurred various ambient crystal mush temperatures and punctuated intervals during cumulate formation. The harrisite layers are associated with numerous Cr-spinel seams occurring along the tops, bases, and interiors of these layers, suggesting they formed in situ alongside harrisite sills within the crystal mush. Detailed quantitative textural and mineral chemical analysis of Cr-spinel seams support a simple in situ crystallisation process for their formation. It is suggested the Cr-spinel seams form within melt channels that develop along the same hot tears that allowed the harrisite parental melts to enter the crystal mush. The chemistry and texture of Cr-spinel is controlled by the volume of through-flow of melt through the melt channel. Where melt flux through channels was high, sulphide and platinumgroup minerals are more abundant, highlighting the key economic implications of this model for the platinum-group element enrichment of chromitite horizons in layered intrusions. We also highlight the role of infiltration metasomatism at multiple levels of the WLI, where porous percolation of interstitial melt and reactive liquid flow played a key role in cumulate formation, supporting the notion of layered intrusion growth by incremental sill emplacement

Eruptive history of the Late Quaternary Ciomadul (Csomád) volcano, East Carpathians, part II: magma output rates

This study, which builds on high-precision unspiked Cassignol-Gillot K-Ar age determinations, presents an advanced DEMbased volumetrical analysis to infer long-term magma output rates for the Late Quaternary Ciomadul (Csomád) dacitic lava dome complex (East Carpathians, Romania). The volcanic field of Ciomadul developed on the erosional surface of Lower Cretaceous flysch and ~ 2 Ma old andesites and experienced an extended eruptive history from ~ 850 to < 30 ka. Predominantly effusive activity took place during the first stage (~ 850 to ~ 440 ka), producing volumetrically minor, isolated, peripheral domes. Subsequently, after a ~ 250 ky repose interval, a voluminous central dome cluster developed in the second stage (~ 200 to < 30 ka). During the youngest phase of evolution (~ 60 to < 30 ka), highly explosive eruptions also occurred, resulting in the formation of two craters (Mohos and St. Ana). The calculated ~ 8.00 ± 0.55 km3 total volume of the lava domes, which includes the related volcaniclastic (1.57 km3 ) as well as erosionally removed (0.18 km3 ) material, is in line with dimensions of other medium-sized dacitic lava domes worldwide. This volume was extruded at an average long-term magma output rate of 9.76 km3 / My (0.0098 km3 /ky). However, most of the domes (7.53 ± 0.51 km3 ) were formed in the 200 to < 30 ka period, implying a significantly increased magma output rate of 37.40 km3 /My (0.0374 km3 /ky), more than 30 times higher than in the first stage. Within these long-term trends, individual lava domes of Ciomadul (e.g. those with volumes between 0.02 and 0.40 km3 ) would have been emplaced at much higher rates over a period of years to tens of years. The active periods, lasting up to hundreds of years, would have been followed by repose periods ~ 30 times longer. The most recent eruption of Ciomadul has been dated here at 27.7 ± 1.4 ka. This age, which is in agreement with radiocarbon dates for the onset of lake sediment accumulation in St. Ana crater, dates fragmented lava blocks which are possibly related to a disrupted dome. This suggests that during the last, typically explosive, phase of Ciomadul, lava dome extrusion was still ongoing. In a global context, the analysis of the volumetric dynamism of Ciomadul’s activity gives insights into the temporal variations in magma output; at lava domes, short-term (dayor week-scale) eruption rates smooth out in long-term (millenia-scale) output rates which are tens of times lower

Constraining the landscape of Late Bronze Age Santorini prior to the Minoan eruption: insights from volcanological, geomorphological and archaeological findings

One of the best known places on Earth where volcanology meets archaeology and history is the volcanic island of Santorini (Thíra), Greece. It is famous for the cataclysmic Late Bronze Age (Minoan) Plinian eruption which destroyed the Minoan culture that flourished on the island. Hosting a central, flooded caldera bay and, within that, the active islands of Palaea and Nea Kameni, Santorini volcano has been the focus of international research efforts for over one and a half centuries. In this paper, we summarize recent findings and related ideas about the Minoan physiography of the island, also known as Strongyli, from a volcanological, geomorphological and archaeological point of view. As proposed as early as the 1980s, a central caldera bay existed prior to the Late Bronze Age. Probably characterised by a smaller size and located in the northern part of the present-day caldera, this earlier caldera bay was formed during the previous Plinian eruption – called Cape Riva eruption – c. 22,000?years ago. Within the caldera bay, a central island, Pre-Kameni, existed, named after the present-day Kameni Islands. High-precision radioisotopic dating revealed that Pre-Kameni started to grow c. 20,000?years ago. Whereas volcanologists have accepted and refined the caldera concept, archaeologists have generally favoured the theory of an exploded central cone instead of a pre-existing central caldera. However, analysis of the Flotilla Fresco, one of the wall paintings found in the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, reveals the interior of a Late Bronze Age caldera that may be interpreted as a realistic landscape. Approximately 3600?years ago, the island of Strongyli was destroyed during the explosive VEI?=?7 Minoan eruption. Pre-Kameni was lost by this eruption, but its scattered fragments, together with other parts of Strongyli, can be recovered as lithic clasts from the Minoan tuffs. On the basis of photo-statistics and granulometry of the lithic clasts contained in the Minoan tuffs, complemented by volumetric assessment of the erupted tephra and digital elevation model (DEM) analysis of alternative models for the pre-eruptive topography, the volume of Pre-Kameni can be constrained between 1.6 and 3.0?km3, whereas the volume of the destroyed portion of the ring island of Strongyli between 9.1 and 17.1?km3. Of these, the larger values are considered more realistic, and imply that most of the destroyed part of Strongyli was incorporated as lithic components in the Minoan tuffs, whereas up to 3?km3 of Strongyli might have been downfaulted and sunken during caldera formation and is not accounted for in the lithics

Magma rheology variations in sheet intrusions of the Ardnamurchan Central Complex (Scotland) inferred from gabbro inclusion characteristics

Entrainment of xenoliths and their consequent assimilation are key processes in modifying the crystallization kinetics and magma dynamics of conduit systems. Here, an integrated textural and mineral chemical study of the evolution of a suite of gabbroic inclusions within a set of sheet intrusions from the Ardnamurchan Central Complex, NW Scotland, is presented. The key findings are as follows: (1) the host magma sheets and inclusions are not cognate; (2) there are microstructural and mineral chemical similarities between the gabbroic inclusions and the textures and mineralogy of the major Hypersthene Gabbro on Ardnamurchan; (3) orientations of magnetic fabrics within the host sheet groundmass and within the gabbroic inclusions are virtually identical. Field observations suggest that the inclusions were derived from the Hypersthene Gabbro and were entrained in a few laterally restricted magma segments that subsequently coalesced with inclusion-free segments into continuous sheets. Using Stokes’ Law and adaptations thereof, we calculate that the magma within the inclusion-free segments behaved as a Newtonian fluid, with a potential settling velocity of <0·028 m s–1. In contrast, the presence of gabbro inclusions probably modified the magma dynamics to Bingham-like behaviour. We infer that this variation in the magma rheology of separate segments continued after coalescence and internally partitioned the magma sheet, preventing lateral mixing and inclusion transport

Eruption Style, Emplacement Dynamics and Geometry of Peralkaline Ignimbrites: Insights From the Lajes-Angra Ignimbrite Formation, Terceira Island, Azores

Ignimbrites are relatively uncommon on ocean island volcanoes and yet they constitute a significant portion of the stratigraphy of Terceira Island (Azores). The Lajes-Angra Ignimbrite Formation (ca. 25 cal ka BP) contains the youngest ignimbrites on Terceira and records two ignimbrite-forming eruptions of Pico Alto volcano that occurred closely spaced in time. Here, we present the first detailed lithofacies analysis and architecture of the Angra and Lajes ignimbrites, complemented by petrographic, mineral chemical, whole rock and groundmass glass geochemical data. The two ignimbrites have the same comenditic trachyte composition, but show considerable variability in trace element and groundmass glass compositions, revealing complex petrogenetic processes in the Pico Alto magma reservoir prior to eruption. The Angra Ignimbrite has a high-aspect ratio and is massive throughout its thickness. It was formed by a small-volume but sustained pyroclastic density current (PDC) fed by a short-lived, low pyroclastic fountain. Overall, the PDC had high particle concentration, granular fluid-based flow conditions and was mostly channelled into a valley on the south part of Terceira. By contrast, the Lajes Ignimbrite has a low-aspect ratio and shows vertical and lateral lithofacies variations. It was formed by a sustained quasi-steady PDC generated from vigorous and prolonged pyroclastic fountaining. The ignimbrite architecture reveals that depositional conditions of the parent PDC evolved as the eruption waxed. The dilute front of the current rapidly changed to a high particle concentration, granular fluid-based PDC that extended to the north and south coasts, with limited capacity to surmount topographic highs. Contrary to what is commonly assumed, the low-aspect ratio of the Lajes Ignimbrite is interpreted to result from deposition of a relatively low velocity PDC over a generally flat topography. This work highlights that the geometry (aspect ratio) of ignimbrites does not necessarily reflect the kinetic energy of PDCs and thus should not be used as a proxy for PDC emplacement dynamics. Although the probability of an ignimbrite-forming eruption on Terceira is relatively low, such a scenario should not be underestimated, as a future event would have devastating consequences for the island’s 55,000 inhabitants

Crustal differentiation processes at Krakatau volcano, Indonesia

Anak Krakatau is a basaltic andesite cone that has grown following the famous caldera-forming 1883 eruption of Krakatau. It breached sea level in 1927 and since the 1950s has been growing at an average rate of ~8 cm a week. We present new major and trace element data combined with whole-rock d18O, Sr and Nd isotope data for 1883, 1993 and 2002 Krakatau eruptive products and the surrounding crust. Bombs erupted from Anak Krakatau during 2002 contain frothy metasedimentary and plutonic xenoliths that show variable degrees of thermal metamorphism, plastic deformation and partial melting. Contact-metamorphic minerals such as cordierite and tridymite in metasedimentary xenoliths are consistent with high-temperature metamorphism and incorporation at mid- to upper-crustal depth. Energy-constrained assimilation and fractional crystallization modelling of whole-rock data suggests that the Anak Krakatau magmas have a genetic relationship with the 1883 eruption products. The geochemical impact of crustal contaminants on whole-rock compositions is apparently small, and we conclude that low levels of assimilation of a quartzo-feldspathic sediment are recorded in Anak Krakatau magmas. Plagioclase phenocrysts from the 2002 eruption exhibit disequilibrium textures and complex compositional zoning, however, and are also isotopically variable with a total range in 87Sr/86Sr of 0·7043–0·7048 as determined by in situ laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. This suggests that although shallow crustal assimilation appears to have had a limited effect on whole-rock chemistry, a complex late-stage differentiation history is recorded within the magma’s cargo of crystals and xenoliths