Spectroscopic ellipsometry and polarimetry for materials and systems analysis at the nanometer scale: state-of-the-art, potential, and perspectives

This paper discusses the fundamentals, applications, potential, limitations, and future perspectives of polarized light reflection techniques for the characterization of materials and related systems and devices at the nanoscale. These techniques include spectroscopic ellipsometry, polarimetry, and reflectance anisotropy. We give an overview of the various ellipsometry strategies for the measurement and analysis of nanometric films, metal nanoparticles and nanowires, semiconductor nanocrystals, and submicron periodic structures. We show that ellipsometry is capable of more than the determination of thickness and optical properties, and it can be exploited to gain information about process control, geometry factors, anisotropy, defects, and quantum confinement effects of nanostructures

Fortune teller fermions in two-dimensional materials

Dirac-like electronic states are the main engines powering tremendous advancements in the research of graphene, topological insulators and other materials with these states. Zero effective mass, high carrier mobility and numerous applications are some consequences of linear dispersion that distinguishes Dirac states. Here we report a new class of linear electronic bands in two-dimensional materials with zero electron effective mass and sharp band edges, and predict stable materials with such electronic structures utilizing symmetry group analysis and an ab initio approach. We make a full classification of completely linear bands in two-dimensional materials and find that only two classes exist: Dirac fermions on the one hand and fortune teller-like states on the other hand. The new class supports zero effective mass similar to that of graphene and anisotropic electronic properties like that of phosphorene

The optical properties of bismuth germanium oxide single crystals

Bi12GeO20 single crystals were grown by the Czochralski technique. Suitable polishing and etching solutions were determined. Reflection spectra were recorded in the wave numbers range 205000 cm1, and compared with the spectra of Bi12SiO20 single crystals to study the position of the phonon modes. The optical constants of the Bi12GeO20 single crystals were obtained using Kramers-Kronig analysis. The obtained results are dicussed and compared with published data

The growth of Nd:CaWO4 single crystals

CaWO4 doped with 0.8 % at. Nd (Nd:CaWO4) single crystals were grown from the melt in air by the Czochralski technique. The critical diameter dc = 1.0 cm and the critical rate of rotation wc = 30 rpm were calculated from hydrodynamic equations for buoyancy-driven and forced convection. The rate of crystal growth was experimentally obtained to be 6.7 mm/h. For chemical polishing, a solution of 1 part saturated chromic acid (CrO3 in water) and 3 parts conc. H3PO4 (85 %) at 433 K with an exposure time of 2 h was found to be adequate. A mixture of 1 part concentrated HF and 2 parts chromic acid at room temperature after exposure for 30 min was found to be a suitable etching solution. The lattice parameters a = 0.52404 (6) nm, c = 1.1362 (6) nm and V0 = 0.312 (2) nm3 were determined by X-ray powder diffraction. The obtained results are discussed and compared with published data

The growth of Nd: YAG single crystals

Y3Al5O12 doped with 0.8 % wt. Nd (Nd:YAG) single crystals were grown by the Czochralski technique under an argon atmosphere. The conditions for growing the Nd: YAG single crystals were calculated by using a combination of Reynolds and Grashof numbers. The critical crystal diameter and the critical rate of rotation were calculated from the hydrodynamics of the melt. The crystal diameter Dc = 1.5 cm remained constant during the crystal growth, while the critical rate of rotation changed from wc = 38 rpm after necking to wc = 13 rpm at the end of the crystal. The value of the rate of crystal growth was experimentally found to be 0.81.0 mm/h. According to our previous experiments, it was confirmed that 20 min exposure to conc. H3PO4 at 603 K was suitable for chemical polishing. Also, one-hour exposure to conc. H3PO4 at 493 K was found to be suitable for etching. The lattice parameter a = 1.201 (1) nm was determined by X-ray powder diffraction. The obtained results are discussed and compared with published data

The crystallization and optical properties of LiNbO3 single crystals

LiNbO3 single crystals were grown by the Czochralski technique in an air atmosphere. The critical crystal diameter Dc = 1.5 cm and the critical rate of rotation wc = 35 rpm were calculated from the dynamic of fluids equations for buoyancy-driven and forced convections under which the shape of the melt/crystal interface changed. The domain inversion was carried out at 1473 K using a 10 min 3.75 V/cm electric field. The obtained crystals were cut, polished and etched to determine the presence of dislocations and single domain structures. The lattice parameters a = 0.51494 nm, c = 1.38620 nm and V = 0.3186 nm3 were determined by X-ray powder diffraction. The optical properties were studied by infrared spectroscopy in the wave number range 20 - 5000 cm-1. With decreasing temperature, an atypical behaviour of the phonon modes, due to the ferroelectric properties of LiNbO3 single crystal, could be seen. The optical constants were calculated by Kramers-Kronig analysis and the value of the critical temperature was estimated. The obtained results are discussed and compared with published data