Progression of motivation models in exercise science: Where we have been and where we are heading

The aim of this chapter is to highlight four progressions in the theoretical approaches to motivational models in exercise science. Our aim is not to address the efficacy of any given theoretical approach, as the other chapters in this section of the book provide detail in that domain. Neither is the aim of this chapter to put forth a new model of physical activity motivation. Rather, our aim is to highlight how and why the field is changing. We start the chapter by describing that the theoretical perspective driving most physical activity motivation research has been expectancy‐value models originating from social, sport, and education psychology. Following that, we present our perspectives on how and why the field is being invigorated by “new” perspectives, which are really just a reinvigoration of old ideas that got lost in translation amongst exercise science across the years. These progressions of theory include consideration for how a person’s context can impact their motivation (ecological models), that motivation is not a static onceoff phenomenon (temporal dynamic models), that motivation encompasses automatic processes as well as deliberative beliefs and values (dual process models), and that there are processes and factors that determine whether intention translates into behavior (action control models)

Conceptualizing and defining the intention construct for future physical activity research

Intention has been an extremely important concept in physical activity theory and research but is complicated by a double-barreled definition of a decision to perform physical activity and the commitment to enact that decision. We put forth the hypothesis that these separate meanings have different measurement requirements, are situated in distinctly different intention-based models, and show discrete findings when explaining physical activity motives. © 2017 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

How we are misinterpreting physical activity intention - behavior relations and what to do about it

Background: Studies of the physical activity intention-behavior gap, and factors that may moderate the gap (e.g., habit, perceived behavioral control), can inform physical activity promotion efforts. Yet, these studies typically apply linear modeling procedures, and so conclusions rely on linearity and homoscedasticity assumptions, which may not hold. Methods: We modelled and plotted physical activity intention-behavior associations and the moderation effects of habit using simulated data based on (a) normal distributions with no shared variance, (b) correlated parameters with normal distribution, and (c) realistically correlated and non-normally distributed parameters. Results: In the uncorrelated and correlated normal distribution datasets, no violations were unmet, and the moderation effects applied across the entire data range. However, because in the realistic dataset, few people who engaged in physical activity behavior had low intention scores, the intention-behavior association was non-linear, resulting in inflated linear moderation estimations of habit. This finding was replicated when tested with intention-behavior moderation of perceived behavioral control. Conclusions: Comparisons of the three scenarios illustrated how an identical correlation coefficient may mask different types of intention-behavior association and moderation effects. These findings highlight the risk of misinterpreting tests of the intention-behavior gap and its moderators for physical activity due to unfounded statistical assumptions. The previously well-documented moderating effects of habit, whereby the impact of intention on behavior weakens as habit strength increases, may be based on statistical byproducts of unmet model assumptions. © 2019 The Author(s)

Theories of physical activity behaviour change: A history and synthesis of approaches

Background: Most people in developed countries are not physically active enough to reap optimal health benefits so effective promotion strategies are warranted. Theories of behaviour change are essential to understand physical activity and provide an organizing framework for effective intervention. The purpose of this paper was to provide a narrative historical overview of four key theoretical frameworks (social cognitive, humanistic, dual process, socioecological) that have been applied to understand and change physical activity over the last three decades. Methods: Our synthesis of research included the brief history, basic efficacy, strengths, and potential weaknesses of these approaches when applied to physical activity. Results: The dominant framework for understanding physical activity has been in the social cognitive tradition, and it has provided valuable information on key constructs linked to physical activity. The humanistic framework for understanding physical activity has seen a surge in research in the last decade and has demonstrated initial effectiveness in both explaining and intervening on behaviour. The most recent and understudied framework for understanding physical activity is dual process models, which may have promise to provide a broader perspective of motivation by considering non-conscious and hedonic determinants of physical activity. Finally, the individual-level focus of all three of these approaches is contrasted by the socioecological framework, which has seen considerable research attention in the last 15 years and has been instrumental in understanding the role of the built environment in physical activity behaviour and critical to shaping public health policy in government. Conclusions: Despite the strengths of all four frameworks, we noted several weaknesses of each approach at present and highlight several newer applications of integrated models and dynamic models that may serve to improve our understanding and promotion of physical activity over the next decade. © 2018 Elsevier Lt

The measurement of habit

In this chapter, we define habit as the process by which a person’s behaviour is influenced from a prompt to act based on well-learned associations between cues and behaviours (Gardner, 2015a; Rebar, 2017; Wood & Neal, 2016; Wood & Rünger, 2016). Habit is the process that determines behaviour, and habitual behaviour is the output of that process (Rebar, Gardner, & Verplanken, 2018). Whereas the habit process is automatic and spontaneously elicited, habitual behaviour can be inhibited through exertions of self-control or other motivational influences, which suppress the translation of impulse into action (Gardner, 2015b). For example, people with strong habits to eat junk food when stressed will tend to act on their temptation. However, if there are internal or external influences also acting on their behaviour, say for example a goal to avoid junk food, with vigilant monitoring, they may be able to inhibit the behaviour (Quinn, Pascoe, Wood, & Neal, 2010). Several areas of the habit field are subject to debate. Controversy surrounds whether people can be aware of their habits, how habit is distinct from behaviour frequency, and whether and how the influence of habit might be disentangled from that of other forms of motivation. At the core of these controversies are issues of measurement, specifically the construct validity of habit measures; that is, are existing measures adequate for capturing the habit process? This chapter aims to meet these challenges

A daily diary approach to investigate the effect of ego depletion on intentions and next day behavior

Objectives: Ego depletion impairs physical and cognitive capacities, but its effects on daily intentions and behavior remain unclear. This study provides insight into relationships between ego depletion, intentions, and exercise, leisure sitting and other non-activity related behaviors. Design: The study involved repeated assessment using a daily diary. Method: Australian university students (N = 103, 52% female, M age = 22 years) self-reported end-of-day ego depletion, decisional intentions, and behavior for time spent exercising, in leisure-time sitting, doing paid work, sleeping, studying, housework, and the amount of alcohol consumed across seven days. Results: When people were more ego depleted at the time of reporting intentions, they intended to exercise for less time the next day than when people were less ego depleted. However, if people were highly ego depleted when reporting exercise intentions for the next day, they were subsequently more likely to reach those intentions. There were no significant effects of ego depletion on intentions or on the likelihood of achieving intentions for any behavior other than exercise. Conclusions: Given that the effects of ego depletion on intentions and behavior were seen for exercise but not other daily behaviors, it may be that ego depletion only impacts intentions to engage in physically effortful behavior. Future research is needed to test replicability of the effects. Interventions may consider accounting for ego depletion in efforts to enhance behavioral intentions; however, the findings also highlight the importance of keeping behavior change (as opposed to change in intentions) as the main outcome focus. © 2018 Elsevier Lt

Editorial: New developments in the intention-behavior gap for physical activity – recent trends, controversies, and a critical outlook

Physical activity (PA) plays a predominant role in health promotion and disease prevention. Despite strong intentions, individuals often refrain from acting on intended behaviors due to various barriers (e.g., high levels of stress, other priorities, waning motivation). This so-called intention-behavior gap can be overcome by self-regulation, which is a central aspect of goal-directed human behavior and can be defined as a process in which a person modifies his or her thoughts, feelings, moods, and impulses as well as other dominant response tendencies to bring them in line with his or her goals, aims, or norms. Recent research has highlighted the importance of integrating explicit (e.g., motivational, and volitional processes) and implicit processes (e.g., habitual processes) to explain human behavior. However, it is still unclear, how explicit, and implicit processes work together and, for example, if they operate in parallel (additive pattern) or may also interact (synergistically) in predicting PA behavior. The aims of the current Research Topic are to expand our understanding of PA regulation, to identify the relevant processes affecting and bridging the intention-behavior gap, and to develop and evaluate treatments to promote and maintain PA behavior. Dual-process theories (Brand & Ekkekakis, 2018; Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Strobach et al., 2020), action control theories (Rhodes & Yao, 2015), and integrated models of health behavior (Hagger & Hamilton, 2020) provide promising frameworks to examine and get new insights in the adoption and maintenance of PA behavior. We therefore encourage authors to consider developments of new theoretical paradigms and ideas (e.g., role of executive functions, effort, self-regulation), innovative quantitative measures, as well as innovative research designs and interventions, such as ambulatory assessment, objective measures, physical activity and sport performance, application of qualitative research designs or mixed methods

Habit Facilitates Actioning Sun Protective Behavior Intentions

Skin cancer is highly burdensome, but preventable with regular engagement in sun protective behaviors. Despite modest effectiveness of sun-protective behavior promotional efforts thus far, rates of engagement in sun-protective behaviors remain low. More is needed to understand motivation for using sunscreen, wearing sun-protective clothing, and seeking shade. This study tested whether the links of intention and habit strength with behavior differed between sun-protective behaviors. It was hypothesized that sun protective behaviors would be predicted by both habit and intention and that intention-behavior associations would be weaker for people with stronger habits. Participants residing in Queensland, Australia (N = 203; 75.96% female; M age = 37.16 years, SD = 14.67) self-reported their intentions and habit strength about sun-protective behavior for the next 7 days. Participants were followed-up 7 days later to self-report their sun-protective behavior. Multilevel modeling, accounting for nesting of multiple behaviors within-person, revealed that habit moderated the intention strength–behavior association and this moderation effect did not differ as a function of which behavior was being predicted. People with strong or moderate habit strength tended to act in line with their intentions; however, for people with very weak habits (2 SD </p

A systematic review of the effects of non-conscious regulatory processes in physical activity

Physical activity theories have almost exclusively focused on conscious regulatory processes such as plans, beliefs, and expected value. The aim of this review was to aggregate the burgeoning evidence showing that physical activity is also partially determined by non-conscious processes (e.g., habits, automatic associations, priming effects). A systematic search was conducted and study characteristics, design, measures, effect size of the principle summary measures, and main conclusions of 52 studies were extracted by two independent coders. The findings support that habitual regulatory processes measured via self-report are directly associated with physical activity beyond conscious processes, and that there is likely interdependency between habit strength and intentions. Response latency measures of automatic associations with physical activity were widely disparate, precluding conclusions about specific effects. A small body of evidence demonstrated a variety of priming effects on physical activity. Overall, it is evident that physical activity is partially regulated by non-conscious processes, but there remain many unanswered questions for this area of research. Future research should refine the conceptualisation and measurement of non-conscious regulatory processes and determine how to harness them to promote physical activity

Reflective and non-conscious responses to exercise images

Images portraying exercise are commonly used to promote exercise behavior and to measure automatic associations of exercise (e.g., via implicit association tests). The effectiveness of these promotion efforts and the validity of measurement techniques partially rely on the untested assumption that the images being used are perceived by the general public as portrayals of exercise that is pleasant and motivating. The aim of this study was to investigate how content of images impacted people's automatic and reflective evaluations of exercise images. Participants (N = 90) completed a response time categorization task (similar to the implicit association test) to capture how automatically people perceived each image as relevant to Exercise or Not exercise. Participants also self-reported their evaluations of the images using visual analog scales with the anchors: Exercise/Not exercise, Does not motivate me to exercise/Motivates me to exercise, Pleasant/Unpleasant, and Energizing/Deactivating. People tended to more strongly automatically associate images with exercise if the images were of an outdoor setting, presented sport (as opposed to active labor or gym-based) activities, and included young (as opposed to middle-aged) adults. People tended to reflectively find images of young adults more motivating and relevant to exercise than images of older adults. The content of exercise images is an often overlooked source of systematic variability that may impact measurement validity and intervention effectiveness. © 2018 Cope, Vandelanotte, Short, Conroy, Rhodes, Jackson, Dimmock and Rebar